Henry Smith Williams - A History of Science (volume 2)

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A HISTORY OF SCIENCE
BY HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D., LL.D.
ASSISTED BY EDWARD H. WILLIAMS, M.D.
IN FIVE VOLUMES
VOLUME II.
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History of Science II
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2
CONTENTS
BOOK II
CHAPTER I. SCIENCE IN THE DARK AGE
CHAPTER II. MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE AMONG THE ARABIANS
CHAPTER III. MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE IN THE WEST
CHAPTER IV. THE NEW COSMOLOGY--COPERNICUS TO KEPLER AND GALILEO
CHAPTER V. GALILEO AND THE NEW PHYSICS
CHAPTER VI. TWO PSEUDO-SCIENCES--ALCHEMY AND ASTROLOGY
CHAPTER VII. FROM PARACELSUS TO HARVEY
CHAPTER VIII. MEDICINE IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
CHAPTER IX. PHILOSOPHER-SCIENTISTS AND NEW INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING
CHAPTER X. THE SUCCESSORS OF GALILEO IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE
CHAPTER XI. NEWTON AND THE COMPOSITION OF LIGHT
CHAPTER XII. NEWTON AND THE LAW OF GRAVITATION
CHAPTER XIII. INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION IN THE AGE OF NEWTON
CHAPTER XIV. PROGRESS IN ELECTRICITY FROM GILBERT AND VON GUERICKE TO FRANKLIN
CHAPTER XV. NATURAL HISTORY TO THE TIME OF LINNAEUS
APPENDIX
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A HISTORY OF SCIENCE
BOOK II
THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN SCIENCE
The studies of the present book cover the progress of science
from the close of the Roman period in the fifth century A.D. to
about the middle of the eighteenth century. In tracing the course
of events through so long a period, a difficulty becomes
prominent which everywhere besets the historian in less degree--a
difficulty due to the conflict between the strictly chronological
and the topical method of treatment. We must hold as closely as
possible to the actual sequence of events, since, as already
pointed out, one discovery leads on to another. But, on the other
hand, progressive steps are taken contemporaneously in the
various fields of science, and if we were to attempt to introduce
these in strict chronological order we should lose all sense of
topical continuity.
Our method has been to adopt a compromise, following the course
of a single science in each great epoch to a convenient
stopping-point, and then turning back to bring forward the story
of another science. Thus, for example, we tell the story of
Copernicus and Galileo, bringing the record of cosmical and
mechanical progress down to about the middle of the seventeenth
century, before turning back to take up the physiological
progress of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Once the
latter stream is entered, however, we follow it without
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interruption to the time of Harvey and his contemporaries in the
middle of the seventeenth century, where we leave it to return to
the field of mechanics as exploited by the successors of Galileo,
who were also the predecessors and contemporaries of Newton.
In general, it will aid the reader to recall that, so far as
possible, we hold always to the same sequences of topical
treatment of contemporary events; as a rule we treat first the
cosmical, then the physical, then the biological sciences. The
same order of treatment will be held to in succeeding volumes.
Several of the very greatest of scientific generalizations are
developed in the period covered by the present book: for example,
the Copernican theory of the solar system, the true doctrine of
planetary motions, the laws of motion, the theory of the
circulation of the blood, and the Newtonian theory of
gravitation. The labors of the investigators of the early decades
of the eighteenth century, terminating with Franklin's discovery
of the nature of lightning and with the Linnaean classification
of plants and animals, bring us to the close of our second great
epoch; or, to put it otherwise, to the threshold of the modern
period,
I. SCIENCE IN THE DARK AGE
An obvious distinction between the classical and mediaeval epochs
may be found in the fact that the former produced, whereas the
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latter failed to produce, a few great thinkers in each generation
who were imbued with that scepticism which is the foundation of
the investigating spirit; who thought for themselves and supplied
more or less rational explanations of observed phenomena. Could
we eliminate the work of some score or so of classical observers
and thinkers, the classical epoch would seem as much a dark age
as does the epoch that succeeded it.
But immediately we are met with the question: Why do no great
original investigators appear during all these later centuries?
We have already offered a part explanation in the fact that the
borders of civilization, where racial mingling naturally took
place, were peopled with semi-barbarians. But we must not forget
that in the centres of civilization all along there were many men
of powerful intellect. Indeed, it would violate the principle of
historical continuity to suppose that there was any sudden change
in the level of mentality of the Roman world at the close of the
classical period. We must assume, then, that the direction in
which the great minds turned was for some reason changed. Newton
is said to have alleged that he made his discoveries by
"intending" his mind in a certain direction continuously. It is
probable that the same explanation may be given of almost every
great scientific discovery. Anaxagoras could not have thought out
the theory of the moon's phases; Aristarchus could not have found
out the true mechanism of the solar system; Eratosthenes could
not have developed his plan for measuring the earth, had not each
of these investigators "intended" his mind persistently towards
the problems in question.
摘要：

AHISTORYOFSCIENCEBYHENRYSMITHWILLIAMS,M.D.,LL.D.ASSISTEDBYEDWARDH.WILLIAMS,M.D.INFIVEVOLUMESVOLUMEII.Getanybookforfreeon:www.Abika.comHistoryofScienceIIGetanybookforfreeon:www.abika.com2CONTENTSBOOKIICHAPTERI.SCIENCEINTHEDARKAGECHAPTERII.MEDIAEVALSCIENCEAMONGTHEARABIANSCHAPTERIII.MEDIAEVALSCIENCEINT...

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