Rapid Quenching of Galaxies at Cosmic Noon

2025-04-29 0 0 8.07MB 20 页 10玖币

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Minjung Park

, Sirio Belli

, Charlie Conroy

, Sandro Tacchella

3,4

, Joel Leja

5,6,7

, Sam E. Cutler

Benjamin D. Johnson

, Erica J. Nelson

, and Razieh Emami

Center for Astrophysics |Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden St., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; minjung.park@cfa.harvard.edu

Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, I-40129, Bologna, Italy

Kavli Institute for Cosmology, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0HA, UK

Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK

Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Institute for Computational & Data Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA

Department for Astrophysical and Planetary Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA

Received 2022 October 6; revised 2023 March 29; accepted 2023 May 12; published 2023 August 9

Abstract

The existence of massive quiescent galaxies at high redshift seems to require rapid quenching, but it is unclear

whether all quiescent galaxies have gone through this phase and what physical mechanisms are involved. To study

rapid quenching, we use rest-frame colors to select 12 young quiescent galaxies at z∼1.5. From spectral energy

distribution ﬁtting, we ﬁnd that they all experienced intense starbursts prior to rapid quenching. We conﬁrm this

with deep Magellan/FIRE spectroscopic observations for a subset of seven galaxies. Broad emission lines are

detected for two galaxies, and are most likely caused by active galactic nucleus (AGN)activity. The other ﬁve

galaxies do not show any emission features, suggesting that gas has already been removed or depleted. Most of the

rapidly quenched galaxies are more compact than normal quiescent galaxies, providing evidence for a central

starburst in the recent past. We estimate an average transition time of 300 Myr for the rapid quenching phase.

Approximately 4% of quiescent galaxies at z=1.5 have gone through rapid quenching; this fraction increases to

23% at z=2.2. We identify analogs in the TNG100 simulation and ﬁnd that rapid quenching for these galaxies is

driven by AGNs, and for half of the cases, gas-rich major mergers seem to trigger the starburst. We conclude that

these young massive quiescent galaxies are not just rapidly quenched, but also rapidly formed through a major

starburst. We speculate that mergers drive gas inﬂow toward the central regions and grow supermassive black

holes, leading to rapid quenching by AGN feedback.

Uniﬁed Astronomy Thesaurus concepts: Galaxy formation (595);Galaxy evolution (594);Galaxy quench-

ing (2040)

1. Introduction

Star-forming activity is one of the fundamental character-

istics of galaxies and is closely related to various properties,

such as stellar mass, color, and morphology (e.g., Strateva et al.

2001; Baldry et al. 2004; Wuyts et al. 2011; Bluck et al. 2014).

One of the most important unresolved questions in galaxy

evolution is understanding how galaxies evolve from the star-

forming to the quiescence phase. Several quenching mechan-

isms have been proposed, and recent studies have suggested

two broad quenching processes with different timescales,

namely “rapid”quenching and “slow”quenching (e.g., Wu

et al. 2018; Belli et al. 2019; Wild et al. 2020). The post-

starburst galaxies (PSBs), originally known as E +A galaxies

(Dressler & Gunn 1983; Zabludoff et al. 1996), i.e., elliptical

but with an A-type young stellar spectrum, are thought to be in

rapid transition from star-forming to quiescence. As the name

suggests, they are thought to have had starbursts in the past, but

rapidly and recently quenched, so that they are still dominated

by young stars, but without ongoing star formation (SF). Thus,

these PSBs hold important clues about the rapid quenching

processes (French 2021).

The origin of the starburst is not yet clear. Gas-rich major

mergers have been suggested as a possible scenario (e.g.,

Barnes & Hernquist 1991; Bekki et al. 2005; Snyder et al.

2011). As galaxies undergo gas-rich mergers, gas can ﬂow into

the central region, triggering a starburst. However, it is not

entirely clear whether mergers are always involved in this

picture. Some studies have found evidence for merger-fueled

central starbursts (e.g., Puglisi et al. 2019), while others suggest

outside-in formation via dissipative collapse (e.g., Tadaki et al.

2017,2020). At high redshifts, compaction processes driven by

violent disk instability or misaligned gas streams could also

trigger the central starburst (e.g., Dekel & Burkert 2014;

Zolotov et al. 2015; Tacchella et al. 2016a; Nelson et al.

2019c). The central starburst will then deplete the gas

temporarily, suppressing SF. Several studies have shown that

galaxies could remain on the main sequence after signiﬁcant

central starbursts followed by gas compaction events (e.g.,

Tacchella et al. 2016a; Cutler et al. 2023; Ji & Giavalisco 2023).

Therefore, some other preventive mechanisms are required to

make galaxies remain quiescent.

Active galactic nucleus (AGN)activity seems to be an

important mechanism for rapid quenching. It could both blow

away gas (often referred to as kinetic feedback)and heat the

surrounding medium and thus prevent cooling (thermal feed-

back). Many studies using simulations have shown that AGN

activity is essential in reproducing post-starburst populations

The Astrophysical Journal, 953:119 (20pp), 2023 August 10 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/acd54a

Original content from this work may be used under the terms

of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further

distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s)and the title

of the work, journal citation and DOI.

(e.g., Pontzen et al. 2017; Davis et al. 2019; Zheng et al. 2020).

However, it is very challenging to directly observe evidence of

ongoing AGN activity. Several studies have shown that PSBs

have emission diagnostics similar to LINERs (e.g., French et al.

2015). Galactic outﬂows have been observed for a number of

PSBs (e.g., Baron et al. 2017; Maltby et al. 2019), and given

their high speed (>1000 km s

−1

), the outﬂows are thought to be

driven by ejective AGN feedback (e.g., Förster Schreiber et al.

2019).

At high redshifts, it is often very challenging to spectro-

scopically conﬁrm PSBs, thus many studies focus on young

quiescent galaxies (in many cases, photometrically selected),

which are most likely to be recently and rapidly quenched (e.g.,

Whitaker et al. 2012a; Wild et al. 2016; Belli et al. 2019; Suess

et al. 2020). Therefore, it is not clear whether these young

quiescent galaxies had a starburst in the past and then rapidly

quenched (thus, being truly “post-starburst”)or simply had a

sudden quenching after a relatively ﬂat star formation history

(SFH; e.g., Wild et al. 2020). The fraction of quiescent galaxies

that are young increases with redshift (Whitaker et al. 2012b;

Wild et al. 2016; Belli et al. 2019), suggesting that the rapid

quenching process seems to become more important and

common at high redshifts. Several studies have also attempted

to constrain the quenching timescales of galaxies, both in

observations (e.g., Tacchella et al. 2022a)and simulations (e.g.,

Rodriguez-Gomez et al. 2019; Park et al. 2022), both at low

and high redshifts. They found that galaxies at high redshifts

tend to be more rapidly quenched (typically <1 Gyr), while at

low redshifts, they have a broad range of quenching timescales

(up to several Gyr). The PSBs are also more frequently found at

high redshifts (>5%)than in the local Universe (<1%; e.g.,

Wild et al. 2016), and the existence of quiescent galaxies found

at very high redshifts (z>3; e.g., Franx et al. 2003; Forrest

et al. 2020), when the age of the Universe is less than a few

Gyr, requires a very rapid quenching process. Indeed,

D’Eugenio et al. (2020)studied nine spectroscopically

conﬁrmed quiescent galaxies at z∼3 and showed that their

average spectra are very similar to those of PSBs.

However, it is not yet clear how much of the quiescent

population was built up through the rapid quenching phase.

Different studies have estimated how many quiescent galaxies

have gone through the rapid quenching phase, and the

conclusions are often sensitive to the deﬁnition of post-

starburst and strongly depend on redshift. For example, Belli

et al. (2019)identiﬁed rapidly quenched PSB galaxies as young

quiescent galaxies with mean ages of 300–800 Myr and found

that the contribution of rapid quenching to the buildup of the

red sequence is ∼20% at z∼1.4 and ∼50% at z∼2.2. Wild

et al. (2016)also used photometric data (using a supercolor

selection)to identify post-starbursts and concluded that the

post-starburst phase accounts for 25%–50% of the growth of

the red sequence at z∼1. In summary, quite a signiﬁcant

fraction of quiescent galaxies can be explained by the PSB

phase (e.g., Snyder et al. 2011; Wild et al. 2016; Dhiwar et al.

2023), especially at higher redshifts, highlighting the impor-

tance of the rapid quenching phase.

In this study, we focus on a population of young quiescent

galaxies at z∼1.5 (with inferred mean stellar ages below

300 Myr), which has not been explored before, to understand

the rapid quenching process at high redshifts and the

signiﬁcance of the rapid quenching phase in galaxy evolution.

In Section 2, we describe the photometric data we use and how

we select 12 rapidly quenched candidates at z∼1.5 based on

their rest-frame color. We also describe the Magellan/FIRE

spectroscopic observation we conducted on a subset of our

sample. In Section 3, we present results about their SFHs, sizes,

and information we can learn from emission lines detected

from spectroscopic observation. In Section 4, we estimate how

many quiescent galaxies have gone through the rapid

quenching phase, based on the crossing time of the rapid

quenching region. In Section 5, using the TNG100 simulation,

we identify rapidly quenched analogs and study what caused

the starburst and rapid quenching at high redshifts. Finally, in

Section 6, we discuss in more detail the size evolution of young

quiescent galaxies and what it suggests, and also the possible

physical mechanisms responsible for this rapid quenching, and

discuss the overall picture of quenching at high redshifts. The

summary and conclusion of our work is given in Section 7.

2. Data and Sample Selection

2.1. Selection of Rapidly Quenched Candidates from the

UltraVISTA Catalog

At high redshifts (z>1), it is very challenging to identify

spectroscopically conﬁrmed PSBs, as it requires much more

time to detect the Balmer absorption lines that indicate the

presence of young stellar populations. Therefore, we follow

the method used in Belli et al. (2019), where they inferred the

mean stellar ages based on the location in the UVJ diagram

(i.e., rest-frame U−Vversus V−Jcolors). We select the

youngest quiescent galaxies with inferred ages <300 Myr,

which are the most likely to be rapidly quenched. Note that

these galaxies are the youngest tail of the quiescent galaxies,

carefully selected as potentially having a signiﬁcant starburst

and rapid quenching. Some of the slightly older (but still

young)quiescent galaxies would have also been rapidly

quenched, as shown in the work of Belli et al. (2019), where

they studied young quiescent galaxies with inferred ages of

300–800 Myr. In the present work, we focus on this extremely

young population (with inferred ages <300 Myr)to investigate

the rapid quenching phase more clearly. We describe below in

more detail how we select the parent sample and our “rapidly

quenched”candidates.

We use the COSMOS/UltraVISTA (UVISTA)catalog

(Muzzin et al. 2013a)and select galaxies in the photometric

redshift 1.25 <z<1.75 with ()MMlog 10.6

stellar . The

redshift range is chosen so that the most important optical

absorption and emission line features can be observed in the

near-IR from the ground. We exclude objects that have

>23.4, as they are likely to be point sources, and those

having bad ﬁts to their photometry (chi2 >1.5). Figure 1

shows the parent sample as gray triangles in the rest-frame UVJ

diagram. The UVJ colors are from the UVISTA catalog, where

the rest-frame colors are calculated with the EAZY code

(Brammer et al. 2008). Following Belli et al. (2019), we use the

rotated coordinates in the UVJ plane (see also Fang et al. 2018),

deﬁned as follows, which help us quantify the age trend along

the diagonal direction:

=-+-

=- - + -

() ( )

SVJUV

CVJUV

0.75 0.66

0.66 0.75 .

Then, the median stellar age of galaxies (t

)can be inferred

from the UVJ colors as follows: =+

()tlog yr 7.03

50 1

*1.12 SQ. Belli et al. (2019)calibrated this approximate relation

The Astrophysical Journal, 953:119 (20pp), 2023 August 10 Park et al.

using a spectroscopic sample with stellar ages older than

300 Myr. In this work, we aim at investigating rapidly quenched

candidates, deﬁned as the galaxies having t

<300 Myr and

>0.49 (quenched). The blue box in Figure 1indicates the

selection region for rapidly quenched galaxies (the dashed lines

being arbitrary cuts).

Out of the 3595 objects in the parent sample, 12 galaxies

satisfy our selection criteria. The 12 selected galaxies are

shown in Figure 1as ﬁlled circles, color-coded by their stellar

mass (taken from Muzzin et al. 2013a). The lime green and

green lines are the evolutionary tracks for dust-free stellar

population models generated with the stellar population

synthesis code FSPS (Conroy et al. 2009), assuming an

exponentially declining SFH with e-folding timescales of

100 Myr and 1 Gyr, respectively. For each timescale, we show

three tracks corresponding to =-()ZZlog 0.2, 0.0, 0.2.

These tracks are generated with dust-free stellar models, and

the presence of dust would shift each track toward the red (see

the black arrow in Figure 1). This means that, at the location of

each track, observed galaxies can be substantially younger and

dustier than these simple models suggest. Thus the e-folding

timescales of 100 Myr and 1 Gyr represent the upper bounds of

the quenching timescales at each location. Indeed, the selected

12 galaxies are located between these evolutionary tracks,

indicating that they are most likely quenched very rapidly.

We emphasize here again that our 12 “rapidly quenched”

candidates are the youngest tail of the quiescent population,

therefore they are most likely to have a major starburst and

rapid quenching. However, they would not be the only galaxies

that would have gone through rapid quenching. Some of the

young (though slightly older than our sample)quiescent

galaxies would have also been quenched rapidly, but they

might have passively evolved for a few hundred Myr after

quenching, or the degree of rapid quenching or the burstiness

of the SF prior to it might not have been as strong as that of our

sample. Our 12 rapidly quenched candidates are most likely to

be in the stage immediately after the signiﬁcant rapid

quenching, best suited for the study of the rapid quenching

phase.

2.2. Structural Data from 3D-DASH Survey

We use the data from the 3D-DASH survey (Mowla et al.

2022)to explore the morphology and sizes of our rapidly

quenched UVISTA galaxies. The 3D-DASH program is a

Hubble Space Telescope WFC3 F160W imaging and G141

grism survey targeting the COSMOS ﬁeld, with an efﬁcient

Drift And SHift (DASH)observing technique (Momcheva

et al. 2017). The global structural parameters for 3D-DASH,

including Sérsic indices and sizes, are measured using GALFIT

(Peng et al. 2002), identical to the methods in Cutler et al.

(2022).

2.3. FIRE Observations and Data Reduction

We conducted the observations with a long-slit Echelle

mode, generally using a 0 6 wide slit, which corresponds to a

spectral resolution of σ=50 km s

−1

, with a ﬁxed position

angle of 0°. For each observed galaxy, we aimed to have an

exposure time of ≈4 hr, and we used the high-gain mode

(1.2e-/DN). To improve the sky subtraction, we performed an

A–B dithering mode for integration times of ≈900 s each.

The FIREHOSE pipeline

was used for the data reduction,

which traces the orders and applies ﬂat-ﬁelding, wavelength

solution, illumination correction, and slit tilt correction. Some

A0V stars close to the targets were observed for telluric

correction, which was applied using the xtellcorr package

(Vacca et al. 2003)implemented in FIREHOSE. The 2D

spectrum is extracted from FIREHOSE for each A/B dithering

position.

We were able to observe seven out of the 12 rapidly

quenched galaxies; the observations are summarized in

Table 1. In four cases, we detect a noisy stellar continuum

but are unable to identify robust features. The lack of emission

lines in these four cases suggests that the galaxies are not

actively forming stars and are likely quenched. In the other

three cases, we identify emission lines and/or absorption lines.

3. Results

3.1. SFH

3.1.1. Prospector Results Using Photometry Only

To explore the stellar population properties of the 12 selected

galaxies to see if they had a starburst before rapid quenching

Figure 1. Rest-frame UVJ color–color diagram for selecting rapidly quenched

candidates. The UVJ colors are from the UVISTA catalog, where the rest-frame

colors are calculated with the EAZY code (Brammer et al. 2008). The gray

triangles are the parent sample of massive galaxies (>()MMlog 10.

stellar at

1.25 <z<1.75)from the UVISTA catalog. The diagonal black line divides

galaxies into quiescent and star-forming galaxies, and the dashed lines are

additional constraints used in Muzzin et al. (2013b). The black arrow shows the

effect of dust attenuation in the UVJ space, assuming the Calzetti et al. (2000)

extinction law. We apply the method used in Belli et al. (2019)and identify 12

rapidly quenched candidates (the youngest non-star-forming galaxies), which

are marked as ﬁlled circles and are color-coded by their stellar mass. We

perform Magellan/FIRE observations of seven of these rapidly quenched

candidates, marked as magenta pentagons. We highlight two galaxies,

UVISTA 169610 and 174150, with their IDs, for which we have detected

absorption features. The lime green and green lines are the evolutionary tracks

for dust-free stellar population models with SFH exponentially declining with

the e-folding timescales of 100 Myr and 1 Gyr, respectively. For each

timescale, the three tracks correspond to three different values of stellar

metallicity (=-()ZZlog 0.2, 0.0, 0.

https://github.com/jgagneastro/FireHose_v2

The Astrophysical Journal, 953:119 (20pp), 2023 August 10 Park et al.

(thus, whether they are truly “post-starburst”), we run

Prospector (Johnson et al. 2021), a fully Bayesian stellar

population inference code, to ﬁt the photometric data released

in the UVISTA catalog spanning from FUV to mid-IR (see

Muzzin et al. 2013a for details about the photometric data of

the UltraVISTA survey).

Prospector adopts the stellar population synthesis model

FSPS (Conroy et al. 2009)to generate synthetic galactic

spectral energy distributions (SEDs). We used MIST iso-

chrones (Choi et al. 2016)and assume a Chabrier initial mass

function (Chabrier 2003). The model consists of 19 free

parameters describing the contribution of stars, gas, and dust.

The nested sampling package Dynesty (Speagle 2020)allows

us to efﬁciently sample from the parameter space based on

given priors to estimate the Bayesian posteriors. The stellar

population of a galaxy is described by a set of parameters,

including redshifts, stellar mass, metallicity, dust parameters,

and a nonparametric SFH (see more details about the setup for

nonparametric models in Leja et al. 2019a,2019b). Dust

attenuation is modeled assuming two components, the birth-

cloud component and the diffuse component, following Charlot

& Fall (2000). The choice of the prior is very important as the

ﬁtting result is sensitive to it. We use a continuity prior for the

nonparametric SFH, in which we assume that the ratio of the

star formation rate (SFR)between two adjacent time bins

follows a Studentʼs t-distribution with σ=0.3 and ν=2(Leja

et al. 2019a). The use of a continuity prior favors a smooth

variation of SFR between the two adjacent time bins and is thus

biased against dramatic changes in SFR, such as rapid

quenching or starbursts. See Tacchella et al. (2022b)and Suess

et al. (2022)for more details about how the SFH reconstructed

from the Prospector ﬁtting would be changed when

different priors are used. We used 14 time bins for

nonparametric SFH, where the earliest bins are 30 and

100 Myr, beyond which the bins are evenly spaced in

logarithmic ages. A constant SFR is assumed within each time

bin.

Figure 2shows the resulting SFHs for the 12 objects,

reconstructed from Prospector ﬁtting. The solid navy line

shows the SFH from the maximum a posteriori (MAP)

probability, and the shade represents 95% of the posterior

distribution from 1000 random posteriors. Indeed, many of our

sample galaxies are rapidly quenched with signiﬁcant star-

bursts. UVISTA 166544 appears to be not fully quenched with

~-()log sSFR 9.4. To quantify how rapidly our sample

galaxies are formed, we measure the formation timescale

(t50

90),deﬁned as the time it takes for a galaxy to increase its

stellar mass from 50% to 90% of the ﬁnal stellar mass. The

orange horizontal bar in each panel indicates the formation

timescale of each galaxy. The formation timescale we deﬁne

here traces the second half of the formation history, which can

be better constrained by the observations. Table 2summarizes

the Prospector ﬁtting results and the formation timescales

t50

90. The average formation timescale of our 12 targets is

=t320 Myr

90 , which clearly shows that they are not just

rapidly quenched, but also rapidly formed. We point out that

this is a conservative result, because the continuity prior is

biased against abrupt changes in the SFHs. The true formation

timescales may be even shorter than the values we measure.

While ﬁtting models to the photometric data gives us a rough

idea of how rapidly galaxies are quenched, the detailed

quenching history, as well as whether galaxies are truly

quenched or showing any AGN signatures, can only be

revealed with spectroscopic data.

3.1.2. Prospector Results Using Both Photometry and Spectroscopy

We detect clear absorption features for two galaxies,

UVISTA 169610 and 174150—two of the most massive

galaxies in our sample. To study their stellar population

properties in more detail, we perform Prospector ﬁtting

again, using both the photometric data from the UVISTA

survey and the spectroscopic data that we obtained from the

Magellan/FIRE observations. When ﬁtting a spectrum, the

velocity dispersion of a galaxy is used as an additional free

parameter. Fitting both photometry and spectroscopy requires

calibration when combining the two sets of information; we

follow the common approach of multiplying a polynomial

function with the model spectrum to match the observed

spectrum (see the details about spectrophotometric calibration

in Johnson et al. 2021). The order of the polynomial is another

additional free parameter and we set it to 10. For spectrum

ﬁtting, we mask out emission lines and bad pixels.

Figure 3shows the Magellan/FIRE spectra of UVISTA

169610 (top)and UVISTA 174150 (bottom). The magenta

lines in the left panels show the best-ﬁt models from the

Prospector ﬁtting, which match both the spectra and the

photometry, in physical units of erg s

−1

−2

−1

. The green

Table 1

Summary of Magellan/FIRE Observations of the Seven UVISTA Galaxies among the 12 Rapidly Quenched Candidates

ID 

(

)

MMlog Hmag (AB)z

phot

Observed Exposure Seeing Emission Absorption z

spec

77854 10.70 20.6 1.34 2020 Feb 2.8 hr ∼0 6 [NII],[OIII]L1.333

199028 10.73 21.1 1.67 2020 Feb 2.5 hr 0 5–0 6 LLL

39507 10.83 20.6 1.52 2020 Feb 2.8 hr 0 8–1 0 LLL

24523 10.63 20.9 1.64 2021 Jan 2.5 hr ∼08LLL

169610 10.99 20.2 1.72 2021 Jan 4.0 hr 0 4–0 6 [NII]doublet Balmer Series 1.7015

174150 11.14 20.2 1.72 2022 Feb–Mar 10.3 hr

0 5–0 8 No emission Balmer Series 1.7335

95964 10.91 20.4 1.50 2022 Mar 4.0 hr 0 5–0 6 LLL

Notes. Column (1): the ID from the UVISTA catalog. Column (2): stellar mass (

(

)

MMlog ). Column (3):H-band magnitude (in AB). Column (4): photometric

redshift (z

phot

). Column (5): observed dates. Column (6): total exposure time. Column (7): seeing. Column (8): detected emission features. Column (9): detected

absorption features. Column (10): the spectroscopic redshift (z

spec

). Absorption lines are detected in only two galaxies: UVISTA 169610 and 174150. Those two

galaxies are highlighted with their IDs in Figure 1.

Observed for three half nights. For the ﬁrst two half nights, we used a 0 6 wide slit, and we switched to a 0 75 one on our last observing night. When combining

these three-night data, we smoothed the data of the ﬁrst two nights to 0 75 slit resolution (σ=62.5 km s

−1

), then combined them with the third night’s data observed

with a 0 75 slit.

The Astrophysical Journal, 953:119 (20pp), 2023 August 10 Park et al.

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RapidQuenchingofGalaxiesatCosmicNoonMinjungPark1,SirioBelli2,CharlieConroy1,SandroTacchella3,4,JoelLeja5,6,7,SamE.Cutler8,BenjaminD.Johnson1,EricaJ.Nelson9,andRaziehEmami11CenterforAstrophysics|Harvard&Smithsonian,60GardenSt.,Cambridge,MA02138,USA;minjung.park@cfa.harvard.edu2DipartimentodiFisicaeAs...

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