When Infodemic Meets Epidemic a Systematic Literature Review_2

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Citation: Asaad, C.; Khaouja, I.;

Ghogho, M.;Baïna, K Title. Preprints

2022,1, 0. https://doi.org/

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Article

When Infodemic Meets Epidemic: a Systematic Literature Review

Chaimae Asaad 1,2* , Imane Khaouja 1, Mounir Ghogho 1,3 and Karim Baïna 2

1TicLab, College of Engineering and Architecture, International University of Rabat

2Alqualsadi, Rabat IT Center, ENSIAS, Mohammed V University in Rabat

3Faculty of Engineering, University of Leeds, United Kingdom

*Correspondence: chaimae.asaad@uir.ac.ma

Abstract:

Epidemics and outbreaks present arduous challenges requiring both individual and communal

efforts. Social media offer signiﬁcant amounts of data that can be leveraged for bio-surveillance. They

also provide a platform to quickly and efﬁciently reach a sizeable percentage of the population, hence

their potential impact on various aspects of epidemic mitigation. The general objective of this systematic

literature review is to provide a methodical overview of the integration of social media in different

epidemic-related contexts. Three research questions were conceptualized for this review, resulting in

over 10000 publications collected in the ﬁrst PRISMA stage, 129 of which were selected for inclusion. A

thematic method-oriented synthesis was undertaken and identiﬁed 5 main themes related to social media

enabled epidemic surveillance, misinformation management, and mental health. Findings uncover a need

for more robust applications of the lessons learned from epidemic post-mortem documentation. A vast

gap exists between retrospective analysis of epidemic management and result integration in prospective

studies. Harnessing the full potential of social media in epidemic related tasks requires streamlining the

results of epidemic forecasting, public opinion understanding and misinformation propagation, all while

keeping abreast of potential mental health implications. Pro-active prevention has thus become vital for

epidemic curtailment and containment. 15

Keywords: Epidemics; Social media; Epidemic surveillance; Misinformation; Mental health. 16

1. Introduction 17

The proliferation of social media content has been the staple of the last decade. Social

media platforms have evolved to fulﬁll numerous and diverse roles, rendering them essential,

ubiquitous and a catalyst for change, for better and for worse. Social media has been a

solemn companion through major crises and events of the past decades, offering a a tool

for connection, a space to grieve, and an instrument of outrage. Through epidemics, wars,

hurricanes, earthquakes, terrorist attacks and major elections, social media bred everything

from support to contention to conspiracy theories. 24

Perhaps the most notable event of the decade will be the Covid-19 pandemic. From

lockdowns to mask mandates and vaccinations, the world is still grappling with the ongoing

management and socio-economic aftermath of this crisis. As the global community braves the

third year of the global crisis, with multiple emerging variants, more than 6 million deaths

and 517 million reported cases, it is evident that our existence on social media has evidently

become an undeniable and fundamental facet of our shared human experience. 30

Bio-surveillance is deﬁned as "the discipline in which diverse data streams are charac-

terized in real or near-real time to provide early warning and situational awareness of events

affecting human, plant,and animal health" including human disease outbreaks [

]. Efforts

directed at facilitating both the early detection and forecasting of disease outbreaks have

been increasing in the past two decades. Through the analysis of a variety of data sources,

"syndromic surveillance" aims to discern individual and population health indicators before

arXiv:2210.04612v1 [cs.SI] 3 Oct 2022

2 of 40

conﬁrmed diagnoses are made [

]. Infected individuals or populations may exhibit behav-

ioral patterns, symptoms, signs, or laboratory ﬁndings that can be tracked [

]. Social media

platforms offer signiﬁcant amounts of data that can be used in both bio-surveillance and syn-

dromic surveillance of epidemics and outbreaks. Understanding how social media shapes our

experiences in times of crises, and characterizing the roles social media fulﬁll during epidemics

would allow for an improved apprehension of how to efﬁciently utilize such a crucial tool, and

may ultimately hold the key to curb the death toll and prevent devastating consequences. 43

During epidemics and outbreaks, mistrust of governments and health workers, misin-

formation, and rumors present challenges to containment and can have a negative impact on

mitigation efforts. The particular vulnerability caused by the fear and uncertainty surrounding

epidemics, especially amid experiences of loss, renders many social media users highly sug-

gestible and at risk for fake news acceptance and dissemination. The signiﬁcant ﬁnancial and

medical burden imposed by outbreaks and epidemics, in addition to the substantial challenges

arising in their progression and aftermath further complicates the mental health toll they take

on the population affected and on vulnerable communities. Although many literature reviews

have shown interest in the subject of the roles social media fulﬁll during times of crisis in

the last decades, a gap exists for this systematic review’s research questions. This review’s

aim is to examine the aspects of the ’epidemic-social media’ relationship and categorize its

various aspects, as well as analyze if and how it can contribute to an improved management

of epidemics. In light of the current state of public health worldwide, it is vital to understand

how a tool as inﬂuential as social media can shape the population’s response in time of crisis

and how it can be harnessed to mitigate risks. 58

This paper is a systematic literature review aiming to study the literature’s take on the

relationship between epidemics and social media’s impact. This relationship is outlined based

on three research questions highlighting (i) the management aspects of epidemics, (ii) the

proliferation of misinformation, and (iii) the potential impact on mental health: 62

•RQ1. Can social media be harnessed for epidemic management and mitigation? 63

•RQ2. Can social media be used for misinformation management during epidemics? 64

•RQ3.

Can social media be integrated in aspects of public mental health management

during epidemics? 66

In order to accurately frame the concepts discussed in this systematic literature review, we

follow the terminological distinctions outlined below by the Dictionary of Epidemiology [3] : 68

Terminology

Epidemic :

"The occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness, speciﬁc health-related

behavior, or other health-related events clearly in excess of normal expectancy."

Pandemic :

"An epidemic occurring worldwide or over a a very wide area, crossing international

boundaries, and usually affecting a large number of people."

Outbreak : "An epidemic limited to localized increase in the incidence of a disease."

Endemic disease :

"The constant presence or usual prevalence of a disease or infectious agent

within a given geographic area or population group."

Infectious disease :

"An illness due to a speciﬁc infectious agent or its toxic products that

arises through transmission of that agent or its products from an infected host."

The contributions of this review are manifold: 70

•

A systematic categorization and summary of existing methods of epidemic surveillance

and forecasting. 72

3 of 40

•

A systematic categorization and summary of existing methods of understanding public

opinion and information dissemination on social media during epidemics. 74

•

A systematic categorization and summary of existing methods of misinformation detection

and characterization on social media during epidemics. 76

• A systematic analysis of the impact of social media on mental health during epidemics. 77

•

A systematic analysis of ﬁndings for the identiﬁcation of potential research directions for

an improved leveraging of social media for epidemic management and mitigation. 79

•

A systematic analysis of ﬁndings for the identiﬁcation of potential research directions for

effective curtailment of fake news propagation and negative impact during epidemics. 81

•

A systematic analysis of ﬁndings for the identiﬁcation of potential research directions for

effective curtailment of social media’s impact on mental health during epidemics. 83

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Related surveys are detailed in

Section 84

to explain the research gap and need for this systematic review. Methods pertaining to the

search strategy and extraction process are detailed in

Section 3

. Based on the comprehensive

and systematic survey and investigation of existing methods used to answer the research

questions, an overall picture on the current research frontiers is outlined in the form of results

and syntheses presented and analyzed in

Section 4

. Discussion of the major issues and practical

implications as well as identiﬁed directions for future research are presented in

Section 5

. Final

conclusions are summarized in Section 6.91

2. Related Surveys 92

The literature has taken a special interest in social media’s role in times of crises, resulting

in several works studying the scientiﬁc contributions made to this subject. 94

The authors of [

] conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) aiming to examine the

potential of using social media to support and improve public health. This SLR studied two

research questions: (i) Can social media be integrated into disease surveillance practice and outbreak

management to support and improve public health? and (ii) Can social media be used to effectively target

populations, speciﬁcally vulnerable populations, to test an intervention and interact with a community

to improve health outcomes? 100

The scope of this review included outbreaks resulting from both infectious and non-

101

infectious diseases, and covered works published in Pubmed, Embase, Scopus and Ichushi-web

102

ranging from 2008 to 2013 (

Tab. 1

). The papers reviewed by this SLR included various social

103

media sites as well as discussion forums and blogs. The main ﬁndings of this SLR highlight: 104

•

The particularly challenging nature of translating research using social media for bio-

105

surveillance into practice. 106

•

The lack of an ethical framework for the integration of social media into public health

107

surveillance systems. 108

•

The retrospective nature of many studies on infectious diseases potentially highlighting

109

the ease in post-outbreak prediction in comparison with prospective studies. 110

• The under-representation of social media analytics in active surveillance. 111

•

Knowledge of the population’s characteristics and way of using social media is a critical

112

part of successful intervention and surveillance. 113

•

The impact of the potential lack of population representativeness in the use of social media

114

to detect and track disease outbreaks has not been adequately researched. 115

The authors noted amongst their concluding remarks the effectiveness of social media in

116

supporting and improving public health and in identifying target populations for intervention.

117

They also recommended identifying opportunities that enable public health professionals to

118

integrate social media analytics into disease surveillance and outbreak management practices.

119

4 of 40

Table 1. Search Characteristics of Related Surveys

Review Paper Databases Searched Time Range Total papers

reviewed

Charles-Smith et al.

(2015) [4]

PubMed, Embase, Scopus and

Ichushi Web

January 2008 – Febru-

ary 2013

Total = 1514

Included = 60

Eismann et al. (2016)

[5]

ACM Digital Library, AIS Elec-

tronic Library, EBSCOhost, IEEE

Xplore Digital Library, JSTOR,

ScienceDirect and the Social Sci-

ence Citation Index

- 29 October 2015 Total = 3,746

Included = 68

Tang et al. (2018) [6]

PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO,

CINAHL Plus, ProQuest and EB-

SCOhost

January 1, 2010 -

March 1, 2016

Total = 569

Included = 30

Abdelhamid et al.

(2021) [7]

Wiley-Blackwell Full Collection,

Elsevier/Science Direct, Busi-

ness Source Premier and Pal-

grave McMillan databases

2002 - 2016 Total = 67

Included = 49

The authors present in [

] a systematic literature review focusing on the research question:

120

What disaster-related collective behavioural phenomena have been observed in social media so far?" They

121

employ the United Nations Ofﬁce for Disaster Risk Reduction’s deﬁnition of a disaster: "serious

122

disruption(s) of a community or society involving widespread human, material, economic or

123

environmental losses and impacts which exceed

[

...

]

the ability of the affected community or

124

society to cope with using its own resources" [8]. 125

The data used in this SLR originates from several sources such as ACM Digital Library

126

and IEEE Xplore and covers papers published until the date of the last search which occurred

127

on the 29th October of 2015 (Tab. 1) . 128

The purpose of this SLR involves gaining a better view on phenomena known as "collective

129

behaviour" in the particular case of disasters, given that they emerge when individual actions

130

are embedded into a social context through social media. The main ﬁndings of this SLR are: 131

•

Sharing and obtaining factual information is the primary function of social media usage

132

consistently across all disaster types, but secondary functions vary. 133

•

Disaster management activities are not restricted to individual phases of the disaster

134

management lifecycle in social media. 135

•

The duration, scope, and magnitude of disasters inﬂuence the extent of social media usage

136

in a disaster, but not necessarily the structure and function of usage. 137

•

Different actor types make use of social media in similar ways, but perceive different

138

conditions and restrictions for social media usage in disaster situations. 139

•

Social media enable members of the population to reach formerly inaccessible actors, but

140

do not ensure two-way communication. 141

5 of 40

•

Social media integrate unspeciﬁed and wider audiences into disaster communication,

142

which can lead to group emergence. 143

• The features of social media platforms determine the structure and function of collective 144

behavior on these platforms in disasters. 145

In the systematic literature review presented in [

], the authors examine the role social

146

media plays in relaying information during emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) outbreaks and

147

identiﬁes the major approaches and assesses the rigors in published research articles on EIDs

148

and social media. This SLR used multiple literature databases such as Pubmed and PsycInfo

149

and covered a timeframe ranging from 2010 to 2016 (Tab.1). 150

Amongst the main ﬁndings of this SLR is the identiﬁcation of three major approaches

151

from the reviewed literature: 152

• Assessment of the public’s interest in and responses to EIDs. 153

• Examination of organizations’ use of social media in communicating EIDs. 154

• Evaluation of the accuracy of EID-related medical information on social media. 155

Additionally, the authors discuss in this SLR the challenges they believe as dominating

156

the ﬁeld: a lack of theorization and a need for more methodological rigor. 157

The term emerging infectious disease (EID) refers to both new infectious diseases appear-

158

ing in the last 20 years or re-emerging infections [

]. Examples include newly identiﬁed species

159

of pathogens such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), pathogens affecting new

160

populations such as West Nile Virus, or reemerging outbreaks of measles and drug-resistant

161

tuberculosis. 162

The literature review presented in [

] studies existing research evidence on the use of

163

social media use in emergency management. 164

The authors of this review use the interpretivist approach as a method of qualitative

165

inquiry and conducted their literature review following the recommendations and methods

166

of literature search and review speciﬁed in [

]. They also combine the review approaches

167

followed by a literature review paper on social media applications and management ([

]) and

168

a retrospective review on social media in emergencies and its research with a special emphasis

169

on use patterns, role patterns and perception patterns ([

]). The authors base this choice

170

of methodology on the belief that "research blossoms when scholars reuse the methods and

171

knowledge developed by peers". 172

The data sources used in this review include Wiley-Blackwell Full Collection and Elsevier,

173

and include scientiﬁc contributions published between 2002 and 2016. The ﬁndings of this

174

literature review highlight clusters representing three main themes around the use of social

175

media in emergencies: Information Sharing, situational awareness for decision making and

176

collaboration among citizens, and emergency management organisations, aid agencies as well

177

as digital volunteers. The authors of this review conclude by noting both the potency of social

178

media as a multidimensional tool for reporting, organising and raising global awareness, as

179

well as the need for further empirical evidence to quantify the extent of such potency. The

180

systematic literature review presented in the remainder of this paper differs from the works

181

aforementioned and aims to ﬁll a different gap in the literature. The inclusion of non-infectious

182

diseases and other health risk behaviors ([

]), the study of disasters in general and the focus on

183

collective behavior ([

]) , the inclusion of multiple infectious diseases both new and reemerging

184

([

]), and the generalized perspective on emergency situations ([

]) are all broader and differing

185

scopes than ours. Major differences extending beyond the research questions of our SLR include

186

the time range of the reviewed literature, the volume of data and the databases searched. 187

The focal point of this work emphasizes epidemics and pandemics, speciﬁcally those

188

having occurred in the last two decades. The proliferation of social media content in the chosen

189

time frame and the global impact of pandemics allows us to study the role social media plays

190

on a bigger scale and gauge its effectiveness or lack thereof. It also allows us to draw more

191

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Citation:Asaad,C.;Khaouja,I.;Ghogho,M.;Baïna,KTitle.Preprints2022,1,0.https://doi.org/Publisher'sNote:MDPIstaysneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalafl-iations.Copyright:©2022bytheauthors.SubmittedtoPreprintsforpossibleopenaccesspublicationunderthetermsandconditions...

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