Dynamic modulation of thermal emission - a tutorial Michela F. Picardi1Kartika N. Nimje1and Georgia T. Papadakis1a ICFO - Institut de Ciencies Fotoniques The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology

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Dynamic modulation of thermal emission - a tutorial

Michela F. Picardi,1Kartika N. Nimje,1and Georgia T. Papadakis1, a)

ICFO - Institut de Ciencies Fotoniques, The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology,

Castelldefels (Barcelona) 08860, Spain

(Dated: 17 February 2023)

Thermal emission is typically associated with a blackbody at a temperature above absolute zero, which ex-

changes energy with its environment in the form of radiation. Blackbody thermal emission is largely incoherent

both spatially and temporally. Using principles in nanophotonics, thermal emission with characteristics that

diﬀer considerably from those of a blackbody have been demonstrated. In particular, by leveraging intrin-

sic properties of emerging materials or via nanostructuring at the wavelength or sub-wavelength scale, one

can gain control over the directionality, temporal coherence, and other more exotic properties of thermal

radiation. Typically, however, these are ﬁxed at the time of fabrication. Gaining dynamic control of ther-

mal emission requires exploiting external mechanisms that actively modulate radiative properties. Numerous

applications can beneﬁt from such thermal emission control, for example in solar energy harvesting, thermo-

photovoltaic energy conversion, radiative cooling, sensing, spectroscopy, imaging and thermal camouﬂage. In

this tutorial, we introduce thermal emission in two domains: the far-ﬁeld, and the near-ﬁeld, and we outline

experimental approaches for probing thermal radiation in both ranges. We discuss ways for tailoring the

spatial and temporal coherence of thermal emission and present available mechanisms to actively tune these

characteristics.

I. INTRODUCTION: THERMAL RADIATION

From the sun itself, to the discovery of ﬁre, all the way

to incandescent light bulbs, radiation generated by hot

objects has been the world’s primary source of illumi-

nation consistently throughout history. While radiation

from burning objects was already known to our cavemen

ancestors, the fact that all bodies emit thermal radia-

tion if their temperature is above 0 K was only realized

in the nineteenth century. Only a small portion of this

radiation is visible to the unaided human eye, and it orig-

inates from bodies at very high-temperatures, such as the

sun. At a temperature of nearly 6000 K, the sun emits

light mainly at visible and near-infrared (IR) frequen-

cies. At lower, terrestrial temperatures, near 300 K, from

Planck’s law of thermal radiation1, the peak of a black-

body’s thermal emission spectrum shifts to the mid-IR

range, corresponding to wavelengths in the range of 5-20

µm.

The ﬁrst connection between light and its thermal

properties is tied to the discovery of IR radiation by

William Herschel in 18002. Observing the spectrum of

sunlight, dispersed through a prism, Herschel utilized a

series of thermometers to measure the temperature of the

radiation corresponding to each color. He then placed a

thermometer beyond the visible red end and recorded a

high-temperature, unveiling the existence of invisible ra-

diation carrying thermal energy. Driven by the interest

to explain astronomical observations, numerous attempts

were subsequently made to describe thermal radiation, a

notable one resulting in the Rayleigh-Jeans law3, which

predicts the spectral radiance of a blackbody to be pro-

portional to λ−4. While constituting a good approxima-

a)georgia.papadakis@icfo.eu

tion for long wavelengths, the Rayleigh-Jeans law hints

at an ultraviolet catastrophe at smaller wavelengths, for

which the spectral radiance would diverge. Max Planck

resolved the paradox by introducing his famous law of

thermal radiation1. Indeed, Planck’s theory reduces to

Rayleigh-Jeans law for large values of λ, yet it also ac-

curately predicts thermal emission from a blackbody at

short wavelengths.

Other than illumination, thermal radiation is also the

most abundant source of energy on our planet. The to-

tal solar daytime irradiance reaches 1,360 W/m2. This

power density suﬃces to meet the world’s energy needs

for an entire year, if one collected all the energy that

reaches the earth for just one hour. Harvesting this abun-

dant renewable energy source for electricity is the sub-

ject of a large portion of modern research4, with solar

photovoltaic cells having reached the stage of a mature

technology5,6. Solar photovoltaic cells harness the por-

tion of solar photons with frequencies in the visible range.

For a single junction photovoltaic cell, the fundamental

eﬃciency limit of roughly 30% was derived by Shockley

and Queisser in 19617.

Together with the sun, terrestrial objects in the macro-

as well as in the micro-scale emit mid-IR radiation as a re-

sult of local heating. Examples range from exhaust gases

from a power plant, to a hot stove top, to an operating

microprocessor. Due to its abundance, this radiant heat,

often termed waste heat, presents a signiﬁcant opportu-

nity for heat-to-electricity energy conversion, recycling,

and storage. A signiﬁcant portion of waste heat resides

at temperatures below 1000 K8, and this, from a thermo-

dynamic point of view, hinders its eﬃcient conversion.

Since the ultimate thermodynamic eﬃciency of a heat

engine is 1 −TC/TH(the Carnot limit), where TCand

THare the temperatures of the cold and hot reservoirs,

respectively, reaching high eﬃciencies at low-grade waste

heat temperatures (TH<1000 K) is a challenge9.

This is the author’s peer reviewed, accepted manuscript. However, the online version of record will be different from this version once it has been copyedited and typeset.

PLEASE CITE THIS ARTICLE AS DOI: 10.1063/5.0134951

To harness waste heat, one can use a thermo-

photovoltaic system, which operates similarly to a solar

photovoltaic cell. In the thermo-photovoltaic case, how-

ever, instead of the sun, heat elevates the temperature

of a local thermal emitter, which in turn emits radiation

towards a low-band gap photovoltaic cell, whose band

gap energy corresponds to the average energy of photons

from the thermal emitter10. The characteristics of ther-

mal emission can be engineered to match the properties of

the corresponding photovoltaic cell, thus, theoretical pre-

dictions estimate thermo-photovoltaics performance near

thermodynamic limits5,11–13. Experimental demonstra-

tions of thermo-photovoltaic systems with eﬃciencies in

the range of 40% have already been reported, although

this peak eﬃciency was reached at high emitter temper-

atures (2400◦C)5.

Beyond energy and lighting, harnessing and controlling

thermal radiation ﬁnds applications in any technologi-

cal platform where regulating a temperature is relevant.

One notable example is radiative cooling14–23. Radia-

tive cooling is a technique via which the particular fea-

tures of the spectrum of the atmosphere’s transmittance

are exploited to decrease the temperature of objects on

earth24. In particular, the atmosphere is transparent be-

tween 8 and 13 µm, a frequency range which corresponds

to the peak of the emission of bodies at room tempera-

ture. Therefore, all bodies at room temperature emit

thermal radiation which can escape the atmosphere and

thermalize with the coldness of the universe at 3K. In

order to cool down, however, the body’s total energy bal-

ance needs to be negative: the energy the body absorbs

from its surroundings must be smaller than the energy it

emits25. For this reason, radiative cooling devices have

been designed using a nearly ideal mirror to reject solar

photons from the sun, while at the same time, they emit

eﬃciently at frequencies within the atmospheric trans-

parency window.26–28.

Other applications in which the control of thermal

radiation is crucial include thermal camouﬂaging29–33

and circuitry34–43. Applications in sensing44, thermal

imaging45,46, and spectroscopy47,48 are also relevant to

thermal photonics. The ﬁeld of thermal photonics aims

to tailor the incoherent thermal emission from black-

bodies to meet the requirements of various applications.

Very interesting results demonstrating a high degree of

both spatial and temporal coherence have been recently

reported13.

This tutorial is structured as follows: ﬁrst, we intro-

duce our notation and theoretical framework, and distin-

guish between the thermal near-ﬁeld and far-ﬁeld. We

brieﬂy discuss the spectral and spatial coherence of both

near- and far- ﬁeld thermal radiation, and comment on

the techniques adopted to measure thermal emission in

both ranges. Next, we describe prominent mechanisms

available for dynamic control of thermal emission and

their potential applications. We focus individually on

each distinct phenomenon which can be used to achieve

dynamic modulation, yet we note that, in practice, sev-

0.1

Energy (eV)

T=300K

T=600K

T=1000K

Spectral energy density (eV s/µm³) 108

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0.5

1.5

FIG. 1. Spectral energy density for a blackbody calculated

using Eq. 1 for T= 300 K, 600 K and 1000K.

eral of the described phenomena may be combined to

design mid-IR photonic devices for applications.

II. PLANCK’S LAW OF THERMAL RADIATION

Planck’s law describes how the temperature of a body

determines the amplitude and spectrum of its thermal

emission1. It states that the spectral energy density (en-

ergy per unit volume), φ(ω), for an emitter at tempera-

ture Tand frequency ωcan be expressed as:

φ(ω) = E(ω, T )×DOS,(1)

where E(ω, T ) is the mean thermal energy per photon,

given by E(ω, T ) = ¯hωN(ω, T ), with ¯hbeing the re-

duced Planck’s constant, and N(ω, T ), the photon num-

ber, which is determined via the Bose-Einstein distribu-

tion:

N=1

¯hω

kBT−1

,(2)

where kBis the Boltzmann constant. The factor DOS in

Eq. 1 is the photonic density of states, which quantiﬁes

the number of photonic states available per frequency

and unit volume.

Via Eq. 1, it already becomes possible to identify

a mechanism available for dynamic tuning of thermal

emission: modulation of the temperature of a blackbody

emitter. As shown in Fig. 1, changing the temperature

in Eq. 1 leads to signiﬁcant changes in both the central

frequency and the amplitude of the spectral density

of a blackbody emitter. Tuning the temperature of

an emitter is what enables thermo-optical modulation,

as well as a mechanism to induce transitions in phase

change materials, as we will discuss later on.

This is the author’s peer reviewed, accepted manuscript. However, the online version of record will be different from this version once it has been copyedited and typeset.

PLEASE CITE THIS ARTICLE AS DOI: 10.1063/5.0134951

Planck’s law assumes that the distance from an emit-

ting body, at which the spectral ﬂux is measured, as well

as the dimensions of the body itself, are larger than the

thermal wavelength, which is given by:49:

λT=π2/3¯hc

kBT.(3)

As we shall see below, raising these assumptions and con-

sidering separation distances much smaller than λTyields

thermal emission and radiative heat transfer rates that

can exceed the blackbody limit50.

III. FAR-FIELD AND NEAR-FIELD RADIATIVE HEAT

TRANSFER

With respect to λTas deﬁned in the previous section,

we broadly distinguish between two spatial regions: the

region that is suﬃciently far away from a thermal emit-

ter, for which dλT, or far-ﬁeld (FF), and the region in

close proximity to the emitter for which dλT, termed

thermal near-ﬁeld (NF). We note that an alternative def-

inition to NF that takes into account the emitter size

and is irrespective of its temperature is also discussed in

literature51,52.

In order to understand the key diﬀerences between

these two regions, let us start by considering a local

monochromatic emitter in an otherwise lossless, isotropic

and homogeneous background, placed at r=r0. The

electric ﬁeld at a point rcan be described as a plane

wave:

E(r, ω) = E0ei[k·(r−r0)−ωt],(4)

where E0is the amplitude of the ﬁeld at r0,kis the

wavevector, ωis the angular frequency and tis time.

If the wavevector kis a real number, then at a distance

r from the source, the ﬁeld acquires a phase eik·(r−r0)

while its amplitude is preserved. We shall refer to light

with such a wavevector as a propagating wave. By deﬁ-

nition, FF radiation is entirely comprised of propagating

waves. In Fourier space, as shown in Fig. 2(c), propa-

gating waves are conﬁned to the volume inside the light-

cone deﬁned by k0=nω

c,nbeing the refractive index

of the surrounding medium and cthe speed of light in

vacuum51. By contrast, if the transverse component of

the wavevector extends to values of koutside the light-

cone, the wavevector in Eq. 4 becomes complex, resulting

in an exponentially decaying wave away from its source,

also termed evanescent wave.

The scenario of two objects exchanging radiative heat

in the FF is shown in Fig. 2 (a) for the case of planar

surfaces at diﬀerent temperatures. By contrast, when the

objects are placed in close proximity (dλT), we shall

refer to them as being in the NF of one another, Fig. 2

(b), where interesting phenomena beyond Planck’s law

can emerge53.

far eld

near eld

(d=3μm)

near eld

(d=1μm)

near eld heat ux

d²

(TH² - TC²)

∝

evanescent

modes

far eld heat ux

∝ σ (TH⁴ - TC⁴)

nω

k₀ =

propagating

modes

FIG. 2. Schematic depiction of two planar surfaces exchang-

ing thermal radiation in (a) the far-ﬁeld (FF) and (b) near-

ﬁeld (NF). FF, propagating waves preserve their amplitudes

with their phase oscillating away from the planar surfaces,

while the amplitude of evanescent waves decays exponen-

tially. (c, d) Schematic depiction of FF and NF waves in

Fourier space. For propagating waves, the amplitude of the

wavevector (k) is bounded (c) inside the light cone, delim-

ited by k0=nω

cand denoted by dashed lines, whereas (d)

evanescent waves lie outside the lightcone. In (e), the NF

heat ﬂux calculated between two SiC planar surfaces with

0< ω < 10 ΩSiC , ΩSiC being the resonant frequency of bulk

SiC, and k0< kt<1

dat diﬀerent distances is shown in com-

parison to the FF, as a function of the temperature diﬀerence

∆T=TH−TC.

A. Far-ﬁeld

In the FF, we can express the DOS in Eq. 1 as:

DOSFF =ω2

π2c3.(5)

Plugging this in Planck’s law (Eq. 1), we can evaluate

the electromagnetic energy emitted from a blackbody at

temperature T. It is useful to introduce now a quantity

called emissivity, which serves as a metric of the eﬃciency

of an emitting body as a thermal emitter54. It is deﬁned

as the ratio between the energy emitted by a body at

temperature Tand that emitted by a blackbody at the

same temperature. Hence, blackbodies are characterised

by unitary emissivity, i.e.: EBB = 1, at all frequencies.

The emissivity, E, obtains values between 0 (a perfect

reﬂector) and 1 (a perfect emitter). We note that the

This is the author’s peer reviewed, accepted manuscript. However, the online version of record will be different from this version once it has been copyedited and typeset.

PLEASE CITE THIS ARTICLE AS DOI: 10.1063/5.0134951

emissivity, as deﬁned here, is a FF property of emitters

with no counterpart in the NF. Due to Kirchhoﬀ’s law of

thermal radiation55, by reciprocity, Eis also equal to the

optical absorption Aof a material. Often, in literature,

a more realistic emitter is considered, termed greybody,

characterized by a constant emissivity E<EBB . This

is still an idealization as emissivity in general depends

on frequency, but can be a good approximation for some

materials in given spectral ranges. As an example, in

Fig. 3, the spectral energy density of a greybody with

E= 0.25 EBB (orange curve) is compared to that of a

blackbody (red curve).

The DOSFF of equation 5 is the density of states eval-

uated in vacuum. If, instead of vacuum, the emitter is

embedded into a lossless medium, the intensity of the ra-

diation scales proportionally to n2=ε, where nis the

refractive index of that medium and εis its dielectric

function56. This still holds if nis both a function of fre-

quency and position. The dielectric function of materials

is a key property for actively tailoring thermal emission,

as will be discussed below. In the most general case, εis

a 3 ×3 tensor with up to 6 independent degrees of free-

dom. For isotropic materials εis a scalar quantity. In the

following we will see examples of dynamic control of the

scalar dielectric function to modulate thermal emission,

such as thermo-optical and electrostatic modulations, as

well as mechanisms in which the tensor nature of εis fun-

damental, as is the case for magneto-optical modulation.

Let us consider the FF heat exchange between two

greybodies as in Fig. 2 (a). The heat transfer be-

tween them can be accurately described by the Stefan-

Boltzmann law. Upon integrating spatially and spec-

trally the heat ﬂux exchange of two bodies, one at

temperature TCand the other at temperature TH, for

TH> TC, the Stefan-Boltzmann law predicts a total heat

exchange that is proportional to (T4

H−T4

C). We therefore

note that, in the FF, thermal emission as well as the to-

tal radiative heat transfer is independent of the distance

from the emitter.

On the other hand, when the heat exchange between

the two bodies occurs at distances comparable or below

the thermal wavelength λT, as in Fig. 2 (b), the modes

that dominantly contribute to the heat transfer do not

follow Stefan-Boltzmann law (blue and green curves), as

can be seen in Fig. 2(e). This is explained in the following

section.

B. Near-ﬁeld

In close proximity to the emitter, the radiative heat

ﬂux is mediated by evanescent ﬁelds that are highly local-

ized close to the emitting body, and quickly decay away

from it, as shown for example in Fig. 2 (b) for the case

of two planar bodies. In the NF, the DOS assumes dif-

ferent values depending on how far from the emitter it is

measured, hence it is usually referred to as a local density

of states, LDOS, to take into account this spatial depen-

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

10-⁴

10-²

10⁰

SiC (d=100 nm)

Blackbody

Greybody

Angular frequency ω [in ΩSiC]

Spectral energy density (J s/μm³)

FIG. 3. Spectral energy density calculated using equation 1

(we note that the yaxis is in logarithmic scale). In blue, the

spectral energy density is calculated in the NF of a SiC emit-

ter at a distance d= 100 nm. We see that the NF thermal

emission shows a highly enhanced energy density around a

narrowband peak. In red and orange, we show the FF spec-

tral energy densities evaluated for a black (EBB = 1) and a

greybody (E= 0.25), respectively. The xaxis is normalized

with respect to ΩSiC =qε∞ω2

LO +ω2

1+ε∞, which is the phonon

polariton resonance frequency for bulk SiC.

dence. The LDOS can be calculated by considering a

thermal emitter as a superposition of point dipoles and

using the dyadic Green’s function to estimate the elec-

tric and magnetic ﬁelds generated by their oscillation52.

To relate these oscillations to macroscopic quantities (for

instance, the temperature), we impose the ﬂuctuation-

dissipation theorem on the current density generated by

these dipoles. This determines its statistical correla-

tion. We can therefore write the LDOS for a thermal

emitter50,57,58. Following Joulain et al.,59, we highlight

the main steps towards the derivation of the LDOS, al-

beit referring the reader to dedicated resources for further

details59–61. The electric ﬁeld correlation function can be

written as:

Eij (r,r0, t −t0) = 1

2πZ∞

−∞

dω Eij (r,r0, ω)eiω(t−t0)=

=Ei(r, t)E∗

j(r0, t0).

The electric ﬁeld can be written from the electric current

density as:

E(r, ω) = iµ0ωZGE(r,r0, ω)·j(r0)d3r0,

where GEis the electric ﬁeld’s dyadic Green’s function,

jis the current density and µ0is the magnetic vacuum

permeability51. Via ﬂuctuation-dissipation theorem, we

This is the author’s peer reviewed, accepted manuscript. However, the online version of record will be different from this version once it has been copyedited and typeset.

PLEASE CITE THIS ARTICLE AS DOI: 10.1063/5.0134951

can write:

Eij (r,r0, ω) = ¯hω

¯hω

kBT−1

µ0ω

2πIm[GE

ij (r,r0, ω)].

A similar procedure can be applied to the magnetic ﬁeld,

using its ﬁeld’s correlation and dyadic Green’s function.

Adding the electric and magnetic contributions, and con-

sidering only the positive frequencies, it is possible to

obtain the local spectral energy density:

φ(r, ω) = ¯hω

¯hω

kBT−1

πc2Im{Tr[GE(r,r0, ω)+GH(r,r0, ω)]},

from which the local density of states can be written as:

LDOSNF =ω

πc2Im{Tr[GE(r,r0, ω)+GH(r,r0, ω)]}.(6)

The Green’s functions in Eq. 6 depend on the consid-

ered geometry. Importantly, in vacuum, Im[Tr(GE)] =

Im[Tr(GH)]. From the boundary conditions at inﬁnity

r→ ∞, one retrieves the DOSFF which we wrote in

Eq. 5. There are also geometries for which the magnetic

Green’s function is negligible compared to the electric

one, leading to a simpliﬁed expression for the LDOS. For

example, if we consider a planar emitter, calculating the

ﬁelds at a distance dλ, in other words in the qua-

sistatic limit, for some materials it is possible to approx-

imate the LDOS as62:

LDOSNF =1

4π2ωd3

Im[ε(ω)]

|ε(ω)+1|2,(7)

where εis the dielectric function of the emitting material,

which is a function of frequency. This approximation is

useful for obtaining insight on two important concepts.

Firstly, we see that in the lossless limit (Im[(ω)] →0),

the LDOSNF vanishes and no thermal emission occurs,

as expected. This unveils clearly the tight link between

optical losses and thermal radiation. Secondly, Eq. 7 is

instructive to understand near ﬁeld heat transfer in the

presence of polaritons.

Polaritons are quasiparticles which derive from the col-

lective oscillation of light and matter. For example, they

appear in materials which present a large enough carrier

density and mobility, such as metals, to allow the elec-

trons to undergo oscillations driven by the electric ﬁeld

at given frequencies. In the following, unless speciﬁed,

we will use the terms “metals” and “plasmonic mate-

rials” interchangeably. Analogously, in polar dielectric

materials, phonon polaritons can be excited from the

coupling between the electromagnetic ﬁeld with the ma-

terial’s optical phonons63–65. In the following, this type

of material will be referred to as “polar material”. In

both cases, the excitation of a polariton is dependent on

the frequency of the incident light. Therefore, the re-

sponse function of a polaritonic material will be resonant

around a frequency, at which matter (charge or lattice

vibration in plasmonic and polar media, respectively) is

oscillating synchronously with the excitation, with min-

imal lag66. This response function is given by the lin-

ear polarizability of the material, which is proportional

to the dielectric function67. The two resonant models

most commonly used to describe the dielectric function

of polaritonic materials are the Drude model, suitable for

metals, and the Lorentz model, suitable for polar semi-

conductors and dielectrics68,69. According to the Drude

model, the dielectric function of a plasmonic material can

be written as:

εpl(ω) = ε∞ 1−ω2

ω2−iγω !,(8)

where ε∞is the the dielectric constant evaluated at the

limit for very high frequencies, usually ε∞≈1 for metals,

ωpis the plasma frequency and γis the damping rate due

to the oscillating electrons colliding with each other. The

Lorentz model, on the other hand, predicts the dielectric

function for a polar material70:

εpo(ω) = ε∞1 + ω2

LO −ω2

ω2

TO −ω2−iγω ,(9)

with ωLO and ωTO being the resonant frequencies cor-

responding to the longitudinal and transverse optical

phonon resonances in the polaritonic material71–73. The

frequencies ωTO and ωLO delimit the region in which the

dielectric function of the material is negative, which de-

ﬁnes the Reststrahlen band64,74.

In Fig. 4, the real part of the dielectric function of a

metal (Drude) and a polar dielectric (Lorentz) material

are plotted in orange and blue, respectively.

At the resonance frequency of a polaritonic

material64,65, when (ω) = −1, the LDOSNF res-

onates. Therefore, when polaritonic excitations are

available, the LDOS in the NF can dramatically exceed

the DOS of the FF, leading to a spectral energy density

which surpasses the blackbody spectrum in magni-

tude. In this case, it is often said that one can obtain

“super-Planckian” thermal emission76. Moving away

from the emitter, the magnitude of the ﬁelds decreases

exponentially, and both the LDOSNF and the thermal

emission spectrum ought to converge to their FF value,

which is independent of the distance.

Where does the diﬀerence between thermal NF and FF

come from? As discussed above, in contrast to the FF,

waves that occur in the NF have an in-plane wavevector

component kt=qk2

x+k2

ythat lies outside the vacuum

lightcone as shown in Fig. 2(d), in other words kt> k0.

Since the total wavevector satisﬁes k=|k|=pk2

t+k2

this requires kz∈ I. This explains the exponential decay

of the evanescent excitation in the direction orthogonal

to ktin vacuum, which we can refer to as zwithout loss

of generality (following the reference system of Fig. 2

(a, b)). Hence, along z, the ﬁeld does not propagate,

This is the author’s peer reviewed, accepted manuscript. However, the online version of record will be different from this version once it has been copyedited and typeset.

PLEASE CITE THIS ARTICLE AS DOI: 10.1063/5.0134951

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Dynamicmodulationofthermalemission-atutorialMichelaF.Picardi,1KartikaN.Nimje,1andGeorgiaT.Papadakis1,a)ICFO-InstitutdeCienciesFotoniques,TheBarcelonaInstituteofScienceandTechnology,Castelldefels(Barcelona)08860,Spain(Dated:17February2023)Thermalemissionistypicallyassociatedwithablackbodyatatemperatu...

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Dynamic modulation of thermal emission - a tutorial Michela F. Picardi1Kartika N. Nimje1and Georgia T. Papadakis1a ICFO - Institut de Ciencies Fotoniques The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology

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