Lazarillo of Tormes(托姆斯的拉托里罗)
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THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
1
Lazarillo of Tormes
Edited and Translated by Robert S. Rudder
With a Sequel by Juan de Luna
Translated by Robert S. Rudder with Carmen
Criado de Rodriguez Puertolas
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
2
INTRODUCTION
_Lazarillo of Tormes_ appeared in sixteenth-century Spain like a
breath of fresh air among hundreds of insipidly sentimental novels of
chivalry. With so many works full of knights who were manly and brave
enough to fight any adversary, but prone to become weak in the knees
when they saw their fair lady nearby, was it any wonder that Lazarillo,
whose only goal was to fill a realistically hungry stomach, should go
straight to the hearts of all Spain. The little novel sold enough copies for
three different editions to be issued in 1554, and then was quickly
translated into several languages. It initiated a new genre of writing called
the "picaresque."
It seems certain that other editions, or at least other manuscripts, of
_Lazarillo_ were circulating previously, but the earliest we know of were
the three published in 1554. One of these was printed at Burgos, another at
Antwerp, and the third at Alcala de Henares. They all differ somewhat in
language, but it is the one from Alcala de Henares that departs most
radically from the other two. It adds some episodes, not in the other
editions, which were probably written by a second author.
Because _Lazarillo_ was so critical of the clergy, it was put on the
Index Purgatorius in 1559 and further editions were prohibited inside
Spain. Then, in 1573, an abridged version was printed that omitted
Chapters four and five, along with other items displeasing to a watchful
Inquisition; later additional episodes were suppressed. This mutilated
version was reprinted until the nineteenth century, when Spain finally
allowed its people to read the complete work once again.
The identity of the author of this novel has always been a mystery. A
few names have been suggested over the years: Juan de Ortega, a
Jeronymite monk; Sebastian de Horozco, a dramatist and collector of
proverbs. But probably the most widely accepted theory was the
attribution to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, a famous humanist. Many early
editions of _Lazarillo_ carried his name as author, even though there has
never been any real proof of his authorship. Some critics, following
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
3
Americo Castro's lead, think the author was a Jewish convert to
Christianity because of certain phrases which point in that direction. And
some think he was a follower of Erasmus, despite the French critic Marcel
Bataillon's emphatic statements to the contrary.
One of the first relationships we become aware of as we read this
novel is the link of the name Lazaro (Lazarillo: little Lazaro) with the
biblical Lazarus: either the figure who died and was brought back to life
(John 16) or the beggar (Luke 16:20-31). This "historical" relationship is
further compounded by the fact that many episodes of the novel are
versions of material traditional in European folklore. There is, for instance,
a thirteenth century French theatrical farce, _Le garcon et l'aveugle_, in
which a servant plays tricks on a blind man. And the British Museum
manuscript of the _Decretals_ of Gregory IX contains an illustration of a
boy drinking through a straw from a blind man's bowl. The episode in
which Lazarillo thinks a corpse is being brought to his house appears in
the _Liber facetiarum et similitudinum Ludovici de Pinedo, et amicorum_
and may be a folktale. And the story of the constable and the pardoner is to
be found in the fourth novel of _Il novellino_ by Masuccio Salernitano,
and may also be a folktale.
It has long been said that this novel is an accurate reflection of society
in sixteenth-century Spain. And to some extent, this does seem to be true.
The king of Spain, Charles I, became involved in several foreign wars, and
had gone deeply into debt to German and Italian bankers in order to
finance those wars. Soon the quantities of gold and silver coming from
Spain's mines in the New World were being sent directly to the foreign
bankers. The effects of inflation were to be seen everywhere, as were other
social ills. Beggars and beggars' guilds were numerous. Men of all classes
were affixing titles to their names, and refusing any work--especially any
sort of manual labor--unless it suited their new "rank." The clergy was
sadly in need of reform. And pardoners were--often unscrupulously--
selling indulgences that granted the forgiveness of sins in return for money
to fight the infidel in North Africa and the Mediterranean. All these things
are to be found in _Lazarillo of Tormes_.
But is the book really an accurate reflection of all of Spanish society?
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
4
If there were avaricious priests, and priests who had mistresses, were there
none with strong moral principles? If poverty was felt so keenly by
Lazarillo and others, was there no one who enjoyed a good meal? As
another writer has suggested, the Spanish conquerors did not come to the
New World on empty stomachs, nor was the Spanish Armada ill supplied.
It is obvious, then, that while _Lazarillo_ reflects Spanish society, it
mirrors only one segment of that society. Its writer ignored uncorrupted
men of generosity and high moral principles who surely existed alongside
the others. So just as the chivalresque novels distorted reality upward, this
novel distorts reality downward and almost invariably gives us only the
negative traits of society.
An important point is the unity, or nonunity, of the book. Earliest
critics of Lazarillo of Tormes saw it as a loosely formed novel of
unconnected episodes whose only point of unity happened to be the little
rogue who told his life story, in which he is seen as serving one master
after another. Later criticism has changed that point of view, however, by
pointing to such unifying factors as wine, which is used as a recurring
theme throughout (Lazarillo steals it; it is used for washing his wounds; he
sells it). Then there is the "initiation" in which Lazarillo's head is slammed
against a stone statue of a bull. Later the blind man smashes his own head
against a stone post as poetic justice is meted out. Finally, Lazarillo's
mother will "lie at the side--or stay on the side of good people," and as the
novel ends Lazaro decides to do the same.
Claudio Guillen, a modern critic, has noted that time is also a unifying
factor in this novel. Early incidents are told in detail, and at moments of
pain specific amounts of time are measured ("I felt the pain from its horns
for three days"). When Lazarillo is taken in by the squire his hunger pangs
become so great that he begins to count the hours. But as conditions
improve for Lazarillo's stomach, he gradually forgets about the slow
passage of time. In fact, time now begins to race past: four months with
the pardoner, four years with the chaplain. This slow, then swift, passage
of time is used by Guillen to explain the extreme brevity of some later
chapters of the novel. It is a mature Lazaro, he says, who is telling the
story and reflecting on his childhood. And we are really seeing the
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
5
memory process of this older Lazaro who glosses over less important parts
of his life and dwells on the moments that matter.
Other critics have responded to the question of "finality" in the work;
that is, is Lazarillo an incomplete novel or not? Francisco Rico believes
the novel is complete, and that there is a "circular" structure to it all. He
notes that the novel is addressed to a certain fictional character ("You":
Vuestra merced), and that Lazarillo intends to tell this character "all the
details of the matter," the "matter" apparently being the questionable
relations between the archpriest and Lazarillo's wife. So there is a
continuity from the beginning of the work through the details of
Lazarillo's life, until the last chapter ("right up to now") where the
"matter" itself, alluded to previously in the Prologue, is finally given in
some detail.
Another critic, Americo Castro, points out that _Lazarillo of Tormes_
is different from other types of sixteenth century prose fiction in at least
one extremely important way that points toward the modern novel. The
knights of chivalresque novels and the shepherds who sighed and
lamented their way through pastoral novels were flat characters with no
room to grow. Not so Lazarillo. Every action, every twist of fortune makes
an impression on him, forms his way of looking at the world and shapes
his nature. From an innocent little boy he becomes a mischievous, then
vengeful, blind man's boy. He observes the hypocrisy, avarice, false pride,
materialism of his masters, and when he marries the archpriest's mistress
for what he can gain, he applies all the lessons he has learned on the ladder
to success-- to the "height of all good fortune." Americo Castro also notes
that _Lazarillo of Tormes_ is a step toward the masterpiece of Cervantes,
_Don Quixote of La Mancha_. As this critic said: "In addition to its
intrinsic merits, the _Lazarillo de Tormes_ is supremely important viewed
in its historic perspective. In many ways it made possible the _Quijote_.
Among other things, it offered in the intimate opposition of the squire and
his servant the first outline of the duality-unity of Don Quijote and
Sancho."
Style is another point of great importance to this novel, particularly in
the use of conceits. Lazarillo's father, for example, "suffered persecution
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
6
for righteousness' sake," a clear reference to the beatitudes. But in this
case "righteousness" is the law who is punishing him for being the thief
that he is. Throughout the novel we see similar plays on words: the master,
who "although he was _blind, enlightened_ me;" or the squire who tried to
coax certain young ladies one morning, and whose stomach was _warm_,
but when he discovered that his pocketbook was _cold_, he suffered _hot-
chills_.
It is not surprising that sequels promptly appeared, but the writers of
these unfortunately lacked the genius of the author of the original
_Lazarillo_. An anonymous sequel appeared in 1555 with the title, _The
Second Part of Lazarillo of Tormes, His Fortunes and Misfortunes_. Its
beginning words are the same as the final ones of the first _Lazarillo_, but
there any similarity ends. In this novel Lazaro makes friends with some
Germans and his wife gives birth to a daughter. Lazaro then enlists to go
on an expedition to fight the Turks, his ship sinks, and he is miraculously
changed into a fish. He has many adventures in the sea, and is finally
caught up in the nets of some fishermen and changes back into a man. The
novel is a fantasy, and may be allegorical. The beginning is its most
realistic point, and the first chapter of this novel became tacked onto the
end of the first _Lazarillo_.
No further sequels were printed until 1620 when Juan Cortes de
Tolosa's book, _Lazarillo de Manzanares_, was published. This novel
imitates the first _Lazarillo_ in its initial episodes, but is again far less
successful than the original.
In the same year, 1620, Juan de Luna's _Second Part of the Life of
Lazarillo of Tormes_ was published in Paris. (Another edition was
published simultaneously in Paris, but was marked as though printed in
Zaragoza to facilitate the book's sale in Spain.) Little is definitely known
about Luna. We do know that he was born in Spain--perhaps in Aragon.
He apparently fled to France in 1612 as a political and religious refugee:
in one of his books he refers to himself as "a foreigner who has left behind
his homeland, his relatives, and his estate for a just and legitimate cause."
It has been speculated that Luna may have been educated for the
priesthood but then grown dissatisfied and even vehemently bitter toward
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
7
the clergy. The reason for his flight to France has been interpreted as a
flight from the Spanish Inquisition. In France, in Montauban, he began to
study theology to prepare himself for the Protestant ministry. But soon
afterward he became a Spanish teacher in Paris, and in 1619 published a
book of proverbs and phrases for Spanish students. The following year his
continuation of Lazarillo was published, along with a revised version of
the original Lazarillo (revised because its style did not suit his tastes).
Next he appeared in London, in 1622, attempting to have his sequel
translated into English. His Spanish grammar was published there the
following year. The last information we have of him is that he became a
Protestant minister in England, and for three years delivered sermons to
his fellow Spaniards each Sunday, in Mercer's Chapel, Cheapside,
London.
Although the details of Juan de Luna's life are rather sketchy, a great
deal more can be said about his novel. His continuation of Lazarillo was
the only sequel to meet with any success. The same characters--Lazarillo,
the archpriest, the squire, etc.--are here, but their personalities are changed
drastically. The squire is the one who is most noticeably different. He is no
longer the sympathetic, poor, generous (when he has money) figure of the
first part. Now he is a thief, a cowardly braggart, a dandy, and Lazaro has
nothing but scorn for him. Lazaro himself is now fully grown, and there is
no room for his personality to change as before. Perhaps the only character
who is still the same is Lazaro's wife.
Other differences between the two novels are also evident. In the first
_Lazarillo_ we see a central protagonist who serves a different master or
performs a different type of work in each chapter. But in Luna's sequel we
do not have this same structure. In the first five chapters of Luna's book,
for example, Lazarillo's adventures flow as they do in traditional novels:
he goes to sea, the ship sinks, he is captured by fishermen and put on
exhibition as a fish, and finally he is rescued. The following chapters,
however, often divide his life into segments as he goes from one position
to another.
Another difference to be noted is that while the first Lazarillo
addresses a certain person ("You": Vuestra merced) who is not the reader
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
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but an acquaintance of the archpriest, in the _Second Part_ something
quite different occurs. Luna's Lazaro addresses the "dear reader" but
hardly with flattering terms: he humorously suggests that we may all be
cuckolds. Then he ironically refuses to tell us about--or even let us think
about--certain promiscuous details because they may offend our pure and
pious ears. The framework of the first novel is apparently a device whose
purpose, like the "Arabic historian" and the "translators" of _Don
Quixote_, is to create an atmosphere of realism, while Luna's "dear
reader" is simply a device for humor.
Another important distinction to be made between the two books is the
extent of word-play used. Almost one hundred years elapsed between the
times the two books were published, and literary styles changed a great
deal. While the first _Lazarillo_ used some conceits, as we have
previously noted, Luna's book abounds with them to the point where it
becomes baroque. About people who are being flooded with water or are
drowning, it is usually said that they are overcome by trifling, but watery,
circumstances: "a drop in the ocean" (ahogar en tan poca agua). Lazarillo's
child is "born with the odor of saintliness about her" (una hija ingerta a
canutillo); unfortunately this refers less to her as holy than it does to the
fact that her father is really the archpriest. The use of antithesis is also
evident throughout Luna's novel. From the beginning in which he
dedicated his small work to a great princess, throughout the length of the
book, we find Lazaro esteemed by his friends and feared by his enemies,
begging from people who give money with open hands while he does not
take it with closed ones, and so on. Another trick in language is Luna's
plays on sounds: such combinations as sali--salte (left--leaped), comedia--
comida (rituals--victuals) are abundant. Luna also uses obscene conceits
for a humorous purpose, mixing them with religious allusions both for
humor and to vent his own feelings of hostility against the church.
Yet another important difference between the two novels lies in Luna's
emphasis on tying up loose ends. We know that in the first _Lazarillo_ the
protagonist leaves the blind man for dead, not knowing what happened to
him, and we never do find out whether he survived the blow or not. Later
the squire runs away from Lazaro, and we never see him again either. The
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
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author of the first _Lazarillo_ gives us a series of vignettes in which the
psychological interplay of the characters is stressed. The characters fade
out of Lazaro's life just as people fade in and out of our own lives. Luna,
however, was much more interested in telling a good story--and one that
has an ending. So the squire appears, and tells what happened to him after
leaving Lazaro: a complete story in itself. He steals Lazaro's clothes and
runs off, and later we see him again--having got his just retribution almost
by pure chance. The innkeeper's daughter runs off with her priest, and both
turn up several chapters later; their account amounts to another short story.
The "innocent" girl and the bawd disappear, then return to play a scene
with Lazaro once more, and finally they fade out, presumably to live by
their wits ever after. Related to this stress on external action is the
importance Luna gives to descriptive rather than psychological detail. His
minutely detailed descriptions of clothing are especially noteworthy: the
squire's "suit"; the gallant's clothing as he emerges from the trunk; the
costume worn by the girl who became a gypsy. These are descriptions we
do not find in the original _Lazarillo_ because the author of that work is
much more interested in internal motivations than external description and
action.
Let us move on to another point: the social satire in the two novels. We
have seen the satire against the various classes, and particularly against the
church, in the first _Lazarillo_. And Luna's satire has the same targets. The
essential difference is in the way the two authors handle their darts. The
first _Lazarillo_ is fairly subtle in its attacks: men are avaricious,
materialistic unscrupulous infamous--and these vices are sometimes only
very loosely connected with the church. But Luna wants us to know
definitely that the church is like this, so his satire of the church is blunt
and devastating. The Inquisition, he tells us plainly, is corrupt, brutal, and
feared throughout all of Spain. Priests and friars are always anxious to
accept a free meal, they have mistresses, and they are less principled than
thieves. Lawyers and the entire judicial system are corrupt. The Spaniards,
Luna tells us from his position of exile in Paris, are too proud to work, and
they will become beggars rather than perform any sort of-manual labor.
Lazaro himself is held up to us as a "mirror of Spanish sobriety."
THE LIFE OF LAZARILLO OF TORMES, HIS FORTUNES AND MISFORTUNES AS
TOLD BY HIMSELF
10
Apparently Luna's anger about having to leave Spain had no opportunity
to mellow before he finished his novel.
Luna's _Second Part of Lazarillo of Tormes_ is not the "First Part."
But even so, it has its merit. Luna liked to tell stories, and he was good at
it. Some scenes are witty and highly entertaining. When Lazaro meets his
old friends, the bawd and the "maiden," at an inn, the action is hardly dull.
The "quarter of kid" becomes the center of attraction from the time it
appears on Lazaro's plate until he falls and ejects it from his throat, and it
is used skillfully and humorously to tell us a great deal about each of the
characters present.
Another scene worth calling to the reader's special attention is the
chapter in which a feast is held that erupts into a brawl, after which the
local constabulary arrives. Luna's account is a very close predecessor of
the modern farce. Many of the elements seem to be present: a lack of
reverence, a situation used for comic effects, the chase through many
rooms to find the guests, the beatings that the constable's men are given by
the pursued, being "breaded" in flour, "fried" in oil, and left out on the
street where they run away, ashamed to be seen. It is as though we are
catching a glimpse of the Keystone Cops, seventeenth-century style. And
the variations from seventeenth to twentieth century do not appear to
amount to a great deal.
University of California at Los Angeles December 1972 ROBERT S.
RUDDER
Translator's Note
My translation of the first Lazarillo follows Foulche Delbosc's edition,
which attempts to restore the editio princeps but does not include the
interpolations of the Alcala de Henares edition. The translation of the first
chapter of the anonymous sequel of 1555 follows at the end of the first
part because it serves as a bridge between the first novel and Luna's sequel.
For Juan de Luna's sequel, the modern edition by Elmer Richard Sims,
more faithful to the manuscript than any other edition, has been utilized.
A word of thanks is due to Professor Julio Rodriguez Puertolas, whose
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