On the Improvement of the Understanding(提高阅读能力)

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On the Improvement of the Understanding

On the Improvement of

the Understanding

by Baruch Spinoza

Translated by R. H. M. Elwes

On the Improvement of the Understanding

[1] (1) After experience had taught me that all the usual surroundings

of social life are vain and futile; seeing that none of the objects of my fears

contained in themselves anything either good or bad, except in so far as

the mind is affected by them, I finally resolved to inquire whether there

might be some real good having power to communicate itself, which

would affect the mind singly, to the exclusion of all else: whether, in fact,

there might be anything of which the discovery and attainment would

enable me to enjoy continuous, supreme, and unending happiness.

[2] (1) I say "I finally resolved," for at first sight it seemed unwise

willingly to lose hold on what was sure for the sake of something then

uncertain. (2) I could see the benefits which are acquired through fame

and riches, and that I should be obliged to abandon the quest of such

objects, if I seriously devoted myself to the search for something different

and new. (3) I perceived that if true happiness chanced to be placed in

the former I should necessarily miss it; while if, on the other hand, it

were not so placed, and I gave them my whole attention, I should equally

fail.

[3] (1) I therefore debated whether it would not be possible to arrive

at the new principle, or at any rate at a certainty concerning its existence,

without changing the conduct and usual plan of my life; with this end in

view I made many efforts, in vain. (2) For the ordinary surroundings of

life which are esteemed by men (as their actions testify) to be the highest

good, may be classed under the three heads - Riches, Fame, and the

Pleasures of Sense: with these three the mind is so absorbed that it has

little power to reflect on any different good.

[4] (1) By sensual pleasure the mind is enthralled to the extent of

quiescence, as if the supreme good were actually attained, so that it is

quite incapable of thinking of any other object; when such pleasure has

been gratified it is followed by extreme melancholy, whereby the mind,

though not enthralled, is disturbed and dulled. (2) The pursuit of honors

and riches is likewise very absorbing, especially if such objects be sought

simply for their own sake, [a] inasmuch as they are then supposed to

constitute the highest good.

On the Improvement of the Understanding

[5] (1) In the case of fame the mind is still more absorbed, for fame

is conceived as always good for its own sake, and as the ultimate end to

which all actions are directed. (2) Further, the attainment of riches and

fame is not followed as in the case of sensual pleasures by repentance, but,

the more we acquire, the greater is our delight, and, consequently, the

more are we incited to increase both the one and the other; on the other

hand, if our hopes happen to be frustrated we are plunged into the deepest

sadness. (3) Fame has the further drawback that it compels its votaries to

order their lives according to the opinions of their fellow-men, shunning

what they usually shun, and seeking what they usually seek.

[6] (1) When I saw that all these ordinary objects of desire would be

obstacles in the way of a search for something different and new - nay, that

they were so opposed thereto, that either they or it would have to be

abandoned, I was forced to inquire which would prove the most useful to

me: for, as I say, I seemed to be willingly losing hold on a sure good for

the sake of something uncertain. (6:2) However, after I had reflected on

the matter, I came in the first place to the conclusion that by abandoning

the ordinary objects of pursuit, and betaking myself to a new quest, I

should be leaving a good, uncertain by reason of its own nature, as may be

gathered from what has been said, for the sake of a good not uncertain in

its nature (for I sought for a fixed good), but only in the possibility of its

attainment.

[7] (1) Further reflection convinced me that if I could really get to the

root of the matter I should be leaving certain evils for a certain good. (2)

I thus perceived that I was in a state of great peril, and I compelled myself

to seek with all my strength for a remedy, however uncertain it might be;

as a sick man struggling with a deadly disease, when he sees that death

will surely be upon him unless a remedy be found, is compelled to seek a

remedy with all his strength, inasmuch as his whole hope lies therein.

(7:3) All the objects pursued by the multitude not only bring no remedy

that tends to preserve our being, but even act as hindrances, causing the

death not seldom of those who possess them, [b] and always of those who

are possessed by them.

[8] (1) There are many examples of men who have suffered

On the Improvement of the Understanding

persecution even to death for the sake of their riches, and of men who in

pursuit of wealth have exposed themselves to so many dangers, that they

have paid away their life as a penalty for their folly. (2) Examples are no

less numerous of men, who have endured the utmost wretchedness for the

sake of gaining or preserving their reputation. (3) Lastly, are

innumerable cases of men, who have hastened their death through over-

indulgence in sensual pleasure.

[9] (1) All these evils seem to have arisen from the fact, that

happiness or unhappiness is made wholly dependent on the quality of the

object which we love. (2) When a thing is not loved, no quarrels will

arise concerning it - no sadness be felt if it hatred, in short no disturbances

of the mind. (3) All these arise from the love of what is perishable, such

as the objects already mentioned.

[10] (1) But love towards a thing eternal and infinite feeds the mind

wholly with joy, and is itself unmingled with any sadness, wherefore it is

greatly to be desired and sought for with all our strength. (2) Yet it was

not at random that I used the words, "If I could go to the root of the

matter," for, though what I have urged was perfectly clear to my mind, I

could not forthwith lay aside all love of riches, sensual enjoyment, and

fame.

[11] (1) One thing was evident, namely, that while my mind was

employed with these thoughts it turned away from its former objects of

desire, and seriously considered the search for a new principle; this state

of things was a great comfort to me, for I perceived that the evils were not

such as to resist all remedies. (11:2) Although these intervals were at

first rare, and of very short duration, yet afterwards, as the true good

became more and more discernible to me, they became more frequent and

more lasting; especially after I had recognized that the acquisition of

wealth, sensual pleasure, or fame, is only a hindrance, so long as they are

sought as ends not as means; if they be sought as means, they will be

under restraint, and, far from being hindrances, will further not a little the

end for which they are sought, as I will show in due time.

[12] (1) I will here only briefly state what I mean by true good, and

also what is the nature of the highest good. (2) In order that this may be

On the Improvement of the Understanding

rightly understood, we must bear in mind that the terms good and evil are

only applied relatively, so that the same thing may be called both good and

bad according to the relations in view, in the same way as it may be called

perfect or imperfect. (3) Nothing regarded in its own nature can be called

perfect or imperfect; especially when we are aware that all things which

come to pass, come to pass according to the eternal order and fixed laws

of nature.

[13] (1) However, human weakness cannot attain to this order in its

own thoughts, but meanwhile man conceives a human character much

more stable than his own, and sees that there is no reason why he should

not himself acquire such a character. (2) Thus he is led to seek for means

which will bring him to this pitch of perfection, and calls everything

which will serve as such means a true good. (13:3) The chief good is that

he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the

possession of the aforesaid character. (4) What that character is we shall

show in due time, namely, that it is the knowledge of the union existing

being the mind and the whole of nature. [c]

[14] (1) This, then, is the end for which I strive, to attain to such a

character myself, and to endeavor that many should attain to it with me.

(2) In other words, it is part of my happiness to lend a helping hand, that

many others may understand even as I do, so that their understanding and

desire may entirely agree with my own. (3) In order to bring this about, it

is necessary to understand as much of nature as will enable us to attain to

the aforesaid character, and also to form a social order such as is most

conducive to the attainment of this character by the greatest number with

the least difficulty and danger.

[15] (1) We must seek the assistance of Moral Philosophy [d] and the

Theory of Education; further, as health is no insignificant means for

attaining our end, we must also include the whole science of Medicine,

and, as many difficult things are by contrivance rendered easy, and we can

in this way gain much time and convenience, the science of Mechanics

must in no way be despised.

[16] (1) But before all things, a means must be devised for

improving the understanding and purifying it, as far as may be at the

On the Improvement of the Understanding

outset, so that it may apprehend things without error, and in the best

possible way. (2) Thus it is apparent to everyone that I wish to direct all

science to one end [e] and aim, so that we may attain to the supreme

human perfection which we have named; and, therefore, whatsoever in the

sciences does not serve to promote our object will have to be rejected as

useless. (3) To sum up the matter in a word, all our actions and thoughts

must be directed to this one end.

[17] (1) Yet, as it is necessary that while we are endeavoring to attain

our purpose, and bring the understanding into the right path we should

carry on our life, we are compelled first of all to lay down certain rules of

life as provisionally good, to wit the following:- I. (2) To speak in a

manner intelligible to the multitude, and to comply with every

general custom that does not hinder the attainment of our purpose.

(3) For we can gain from the multitude no small advantages,

provided that we strive to accommodate ourselves to its

understanding as far as possible: moreover, we shall in this way gain

a friendly audience for the reception of the truth. II. (17:4) To

indulge ourselves with pleasures only in so far as they are necessary

for preserving health. III. (5) Lastly, to endeavor to obtain only sufficient

money or other commodities to enable us to preserve our life and

health, and to follow such general customs as are consistent with our

purpose.

[18] (1) Having laid down these preliminary rules, I will betake

myself to the first and most important task, namely, the amendment of the

understanding, and the rendering it capable of understanding things in the

manner necessary for attaining our end. (2) In order to bring this about,

the natural order demands that I should here recapitulate all the modes of

perception, which I have hitherto employed for affirming or denying

anything with certainty, so that I may choose the best, and at the same time

begin to know my own powers and the nature which I wish to perfect.

[19] (1) Reflection shows that all modes of perception or knowledge

may be reduced to four:- I. (2) Perception arising from hearsay or from

some sign which everyone may name as he please. II. (3) Perception

arising from mere experience - that is, form experience not yet

On the Improvement of the Understanding

classified by the intellect, and only so called because the given event

has happened to take place, and we have no contradictory fact to set

against it, so that it therefore remains unassailed in our minds. III.

(19:4) Perception arising when the essence of one thing is inferred

from another thing, but not adequately; this comes when [f] from some

effect we gather its cause, or when it is inferred from some general

proposition that some property is always present. IV. (5) Lastly, there is

the perception arising when a thing is perceived solely through its

essence, or through the knowledge of its proximate cause.

[20] (1) All these kinds of perception I will illustrate by examples. (2)

By hearsay I know the day of my birth, my parentage, and other matters

about which I have never felt any doubt. (3) By mere experience I know

that I shall die, for this I can affirm from having seen that others like

myself have died, though all did not live for the same period, or die by the

same disease. (4) I know by mere experience that oil has the property of

feeding fire, and water of extinguishing it. (5) In the same way I know

that a dog is a barking animal, man a rational animal, and in fact nearly all

the practical knowledge of life.

[21] (1) We deduce one thing from another as follows: when we

clearly perceive that we feel a certain body and no other, we thence clearly

infer that the mind is united [g] to the body, and that their union is the

cause of the given sensation; but we cannot thence absolutely understand

[h] the nature of the sensation and the union. (2) Or, after I have become

acquainted with the nature of vision, and know that it has the property of

making one and the same thing appear smaller when far off than when

near, I can infer that the sun is larger than it appears, and can draw other

conclusions of the same kind.

[22] (1) Lastly, a thing may be perceived solely through its essence;

when, from the fact of knowing something, I know what it is to know that

thing, or when, from knowing the essence of the mind, I know that it is

united to the body. (2) By the same kind of knowledge we know that two

and three make five, or that two lines each parallel to a third, are parallel

to one another, &c. (3) The things which I have been able to know by this

kind of knowledge are as yet very few.

On the Improvement of the Understanding

[23] (1) In order that the whole matter may be put in a clearer light, I

will make use of a single illustration as follows. (2) Three numbers are

given - it is required to find a fourth, which shall be to the third as the

second is to the first. (23:3) Tradesmen will at once tell us that they know

what is required to find the fourth number, for they have not yet forgotten

the rule which was given to them arbitrarily without proof by their masters;

others construct a universal axiom from their experience with simple

numbers, where the fourth number is self-evident, as in the case of 2, 4, 3,

6; here it is evident that if the second number be multiplied by the third,

and the product divided by the first, the quotient is 6; when they see that

by this process the number is produced which they knew beforehand to be

the proportional, they infer that the process always holds good for finding

a fourth number proportional.

[24] (1) Mathematicians, however, know by the proof of the

nineteenth proposition of the seventh book of Euclid, what numbers are

proportionals, namely, from the nature and property of proportion it

follows that the product of the first and fourth will be equal to the product

of the second and third: still they do not see the adequate proportionality

of the given numbers, or, if they do see it, they see it not by virtue of

Euclid's proposition, but intuitively, without going through any process.

[25] (1) In order that from these modes of perception the best may be

selected, it is well that we should briefly enumerate the means necessary

for attaining our end.

I. (2) To have an exact knowledge of our nature which we desire to

perfect, and to know as much as is needful of nature in general.

II. To collect in this way the differences, the agreements, and the

oppositions of things. III. To learn thus exactly how far

they can or cannot be modified. IV. To compare this result

with the nature and power of man. (4) We shall thus discern the

highest degree of perfection to which man is capable of attaining.

[26] (1) We shall then be in a position to see which mode of perception

we ought to choose. (2) As to the first mode, it is evident that from

hearsay our knowledge must always be uncertain, and, moreover, can give

us no insight into the essence of a thing, as is manifest in our illustration;

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OntheImprovementoftheUnderstanding1OntheImprovementoftheUnderstandingbyBaruchSpinozaTranslatedbyR.H.M.ElwesOntheImprovementoftheUnderstanding2[1](1)Afterexperiencehadtaughtmethatalltheusualsurroundingsofsociallifearevainandfutile;seeingthatnoneoftheobjectsofmyfearscontainedinthemselvesanythingeither...

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