American Hero-Myths (Brinton, Daniel G.)

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American Hero−Myths

Daniel G. Brinton

Table of Contents

American Hero−Myths.......................................................................................................................................1

Daniel G. Brinton.....................................................................................................................................1

PREFACE................................................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY...........................................................................................................3

CHAPTER II. THE HERO−GODS OF THE ALGONKINS AND IROQUOIS..................................10

CHAPTER III. THE HERO−GOD OF THE AZTEC TRIBES............................................................20

CHAPTER IV. THE HERO−GODS OF THE MAYAS.......................................................................56

CHAPTER V. THE QQUICHUA HERO−GOD VIRACOCHA..........................................................67

CHAPTER VI. THE EXTENSION AND INFLUENCE OF THE TYPICAL HERO−MYTH...........81

American Hero−Myths

Daniel G. Brinton

http://www.blackmask.com

PREFACE.• CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY.• CHAPTER II. THE HERO−GODS OF THE ALGONKINS AND IROQUOIS.• CHAPTER III. THE HERO−GOD OF THE AZTEC TRIBES.• CHAPTER IV. THE HERO−GODS OF THE MAYAS.• CHAPTER V. THE QQUICHUA HERO−GOD VIRACOCHA.• CHAPTER VI. THE EXTENSION AND INFLUENCE OF THE TYPICAL HERO−MYTH.•

American Hero−Myths

A Study in the Native Religions of the Western Continent

Produced by David Starner, Inka Weide and

Distributed Proofreaders

AMERICAN HERO−MYTHS.

A STUDY IN THE NATIVE RELIGIONS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT.

DANIEL G. BRINTON, M.D.,

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN

SOCIETY; THE NUMISMATIC AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OF PHILA., ETC.; AUTHOR OF “THE

MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD;” “THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.” ETC.

1882.

ELI K. PRICE, ESQ.,

PRESIDENT OF THE NUMISMATIC AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA, WHOSE

ENLIGHTENED INTEREST HAS FOR MANY YEARS, AND IN MANY WAYS, FURTHERED THE

PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE, THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

This little volume is a contribution to the comparative study of religions. It is an endeavor to present in a

critically correct light some of the fundamental conceptions which are found in the native beliefs of the tribes

of America.

American Hero−Myths 1

So little has heretofore been done in this field that it has yielded a very scanty harvest for purposes of general

study. It has not yet even passed the stage where the distinction between myth and tradition has been

recognized. Nearly all historians continue to write about some of the American hero−gods as if they had been

chiefs of tribes at some undetermined epoch, and the effort to trace the migrations and affiliations of nations

by similarities in such stories is of almost daily occurrence. How baseless and misleading all such arguments

must be, it is one of my objects to set forth.

At the same time I have endeavored to be temperate in applying the interpretations of mythologists. I am

aware of the risk one runs in looking at every legend as a light or storm myth. My guiding principle has been

that when the same, and that a very extraordinary, story is told by several tribes wholly apart in language and

location, then the probabilities are enormous that it is not a legend but a myth, and must be explained as such.

It is a spontaneous production of the mind, not a reminiscence of an historic event.

The importance of the study of myths has been abundantly shown of recent years, and the methods of

analyzing them have been established with satisfactory clearness.

The time has long since passed, at least among thinking men, when the religious legends of the lower races

were looked upon as trivial fables, or as the inventions of the Father of Lies. They are neither the one nor the

other. They express, in image and incident, the opinions of these races on the mightiest topics of human

thought, on the origin and destiny of man, his motives for duty and his grounds of hope, and the source,

history and fate of all external nature. Certainly the sincere expressions on these subjects of even humble

members of the human race deserve our most respectful heed, and it may be that we shall discover in their

crude or coarse narrations gleams of a mental light which their proud Aryan brothers have been long in

coming to, or have not yet reached.

The prejudice against all the lower faiths inspired by the claim of Christianity to a monopoly of religious

truth—a claim nowise set up by its founder—has led to extreme injustice toward the so−called heathen

religions. Little effort has been made to distinguish between their good and evil tendencies, or even to

understand them. I do not know of a single instance on this continent of a thorough and intelligent study of a

native religion made by a Protestant missionary.

So little real work has been done in American mythology that very diverse opinions as to its interpretation

prevail among writers. Too many of them apply to it facile generalizations, such as “heliolatry,” “animism,”

“ancestral worship,” “primitive philosophizing,” and think that such a sesame will unloose all its mysteries.

The result has been that while each satisfies himself, he convinces no one else.

I have tried to avoid any such bias, and have sought to discover the source of the myths I have selected, by

close attention to two points: first, that I should obtain the precise original form of the myth by a rigid scrutiny

of authorities; and, secondly, that I should bring to bear upon it modern methods of mythological and

linguistic analysis.

The first of these requirements has given me no small trouble. The sources of American history not only differ

vastly in merit, but many of them are almost inaccessible. I still have by me a list of books of the first order of

importance for these studies, which I have not been able to find in any public or private library in the United

States.

I have been free in giving references for the statements in the text. The growing custom among historians of

omitting to do this must be deplored in the interests of sound learning. It is better to risk the charge of

pedantry than to leave at fault those who wish to test an author's accuracy or follow up the line of

investigation he indicates.

American Hero−Myths

American Hero−Myths 2

On the other hand, I have exercised moderation in drawing comparisons with Aryan, Semitic, Egyptian and

other Old World mythologies. It would have been easy to have noted apparent similarities to a much greater

extent. But I have preferred to leave this for those who write upon general comparative mythology. Such

parallelisms, to reach satisfactory results, should be attempted only by those who have studied the Oriental

religions in their original sources, and thus are not to be deceived by superficial resemblances.

The term “comparative mythology” reaches hardly far enough to cover all that I have aimed at. The

professional mythologist thinks he has completed his task when he has traced a myth through its

transformations in story and language back to the natural phenomena of which it was the expression. This

external history is essential. But deeper than that lies the study of the influence of the myth on the individual

and national mind, on the progress and destiny of those who believed it, in other words, its true religious

import. I have endeavored, also, to take some account of this.

The usual statement is that tribes in the intellectual condition of those I am dealing with rest their religion on a

worship of external phenomena. In contradiction to this, I advance various arguments to show that their chief

god was not identified with any objective natural process, but was human in nature, benignant in character,

loved rather than feared, and that his worship carried with it the germs of the development of benevolent

emotions and sound ethical principles.

Media, Pa., Oct., 1882.

AMERICAN HERO−MYTHS.

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY.

SOME KIND OF RELIGION FOUND AMONG ALL MEN—CLASSIFICATIONS OF RELIGIONS—THE

PURPOSE OF RELIGIONS—RELIGIONS OF RITE AND OF CREED—THE MYTH GROWS IN THE

FIRST OF THESE—INTENT AND MEANING OF THE MYTH.

PROCESSES OF MYTH−BUILDING IN AMERICA—PERSONIFICATION. PARONYMS AND

HOMONYMS—OTOSIS—POLYONOMY—HENOTHEISM—BORROWING—RHETORICAL

FIGURES—ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONS. ESOTERIC TEACHINGS.

OUTLINES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL AMERICAN MYTH—THE WHITE CULTURE−HERO AND

THE FOUR BROTHERS—INTERPRETATION OF THE MYTH—COMPARISON WITH THE ARYAN

HERMES MYTH—WITH THE ARYO−SEMITIC CADMUS MYTH—WITH OSIRIAN MYTHS—THE

MYTH OF THE VIRGIN MOTHER—THE INTERPRETATION THUS SUPPORTED.

The time was, and that not so very long ago, when it was contended by some that there are tribes of men

without any sort of religion; nowadays the effort is to show that the feeling which prompts to it is common,

even among brutes.

This change of opinion has come about partly through an extension of the definition of religion. It is now held

to mean any kind of belief in spiritual or extra−natural agencies. Some learned men say that we had better

drop the word “religion,” lest we be misunderstood. They would rather use “daimonism,” or

“supernaturalism,” or other such new term; but none of these seems to me so wide and so exactly significant

of what I mean as “religion.”

All now agree that in this very broad sense some kind of religion exists in every human community.[1]

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 3

[Footnote 1: I suppose I am not going too far in saying “all agree;" for I think that the latest study of this

subject, by Gustav Roskoff, disposes of Sir John Lubbock's doubts, as well as the crude statements of the

author of Kraft und Stoff, and such like compilations. Gustav Roskoff, Das Religionswesen der Rohesten

Naturvoelker, Leipzig, 1880.]

The attempt has often been made to classify these various faiths under some few general headings. The

scheme of Auguste Comte still has supporters. He taught that man begins with fetichism, advances to

polytheism, and at last rises to monotheism. More in vogue at present is the theory that the simplest and

lowest form of religion is individual; above it are the national religions; and at the summit the universal or

world religions.

Comte's scheme has not borne examination. It is artificial and sterile. Look at Christianity. It is the highest of

all religions, but it is not monotheism. Look at Buddhism. In its pure form it is not even theism. The second

classification is more fruitful for historical purposes.

The psychologist, however, inquires as to the essence, the real purpose of religions. This has been differently

defined by the two great schools of thought.

All religions, says the idealist, are the efforts, poor or noble, conscious or blind, to develop the Idea of God in

the soul of man.

No, replies the rationalist, it is simply the effort of the human mind to frame a Theory of Things; at first,

religion is an early system of natural philosophy; later it becomes moral philosophy. Explain the Universe by

physical laws, point out that the origin and aim of ethics are the relations of men, and we shall have no more

religions, nor need any.

The first answer is too intangible, the second too narrow. The rude savage does not philosophize on

phenomena; the enlightened student sees in them but interacting forces: yet both may be profoundly religious.

Nor can morality be accepted as a criterion of religions. The bloody scenes in the Mexican teocalli were

merciful compared with those in the torture rooms of the Inquisition. Yet the religion of Jesus was far above

that of Huitzilopochtli.

What I think is the essence, the principle of vitality, in religion, and in all religions, is their supposed control

over the destiny of the individual, his weal or woe, his good or bad hap, here or hereafter, as it may be. Rooted

infinitely deep in the sense of personality, religion was recognized at the beginning, it will be recognized at

the end, as the one indestructible ally in the struggle for individual existence. At heart, all prayers are for

preservation, the burden of all litanies is a begging for Life.

This end, these benefits, have been sought by the cults of the world through one of two theories.

The one, that which characterizes the earliest and the crudest religions, teaches that man escapes dangers and

secures safety by the performance or avoidance of certain actions. He may credit this or that myth, he may

hold to one or many gods; this is unimportant; but he must not fail in the penance or the sacred dance, he must

not touch that which is taboo, or he is in peril. The life of these cults is the Deed, their expression is the Rite.

Higher religions discern the inefficacy of the mere Act. They rest their claim on Belief. They establish

dogmas, the mental acceptance of which is the one thing needful. In them mythology passes into theology; the

act is measured by its motive, the formula by the faith back of it. Their life is the Creed.

The Myth finds vigorous and congenial growth only in the first of these forms. There alone the imagination of

the votary is free, there alone it is not fettered by a symbol already defined.

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 4

To the student of religions the interest of the Myth is not that of an infantile attempt to philosophize, but as it

illustrates the intimate and immediate relations which the religion in which it grew bore to the individual life.

Thus examined, it reveals the inevitable destinies of men and of nations as bound up with their forms of

worship.

These general considerations appear to me to be needed for the proper understanding of the study I am about

to make. It concerns itself with some of the religions which were developed on the American continent before

its discovery. My object is to present from them a series of myths curiously similar in features, and to see if

one simple and general explanation of them can be found.

The processes of myth−building among American tribes were much the same as elsewhere. These are now too

generally familiar to need specification here, beyond a few which I have found particularly noticeable.

At the foundation of all myths lies the mental process of personification, which finds expression in the

rhetorical figure of prosopopeia. The definition of this, however, must be extended from the mere

representation of inanimate things as animate, to include also the representation of irrational beings as

rational, as in the “animal myths,” a most common form of religious story among primitive people.

Some languages favor these forms of personification much more than others, and most of the American

languages do so in a marked manner, by the broad grammatical distinctions they draw between animate and

inanimate objects, which distinctions must invariably be observed. They cannot say “the boat moves” without

specifying whether the boat is an animate object or not, or whether it is to be considered animate, for

rhetorical purposes, at the time of speaking.

The sounds of words have aided greatly in myth building. Names and words which are somewhat alike in

sound, paronyms, as they are called by grammarians, may be taken or mistaken one for the other. Again,

many myths spring from homonymy, that is, the sameness in sound of words with difference in signification.

Thus coatl, in the Aztec tongue, is a word frequently appearing in the names of divinities. It has three entirely

different meanings, to wit, a serpent, a guest and twins. Now, whichever one of these was originally meant, it

would be quite certain to be misunderstood, more or less, by later generations, and myths would arise to

explain the several possible interpretations of the word—as, in fact, we find was the case.

Closely allied to this is what has been called otosis. This is the substitution of a familiar word for an archaic or

foreign one of similar sound but wholly diverse meaning. This is a very common occurrence and easily leads

to myth making. For example, there is a cave, near Chattanooga, which has the Cherokee name Nik−a−jak.

This the white settlers have transformed into Nigger Jack, and are prepared with a narrative of some runaway

slave to explain the cognomen. It may also occur in the same language. In an Algonkin dialect missi wabu

means “the great light of the dawn;” and a common large rabbit was called missabo; at some period the

precise meaning of the former words was lost, and a variety of interesting myths of the daybreak were

transferred to a supposed huge rabbit! Rarely does there occur a more striking example of how the

deteriorations of language affect mythology.

Aztlan, the mythical land whence the Aztec speaking tribes were said to have come, and from which they

derived their name, means “the place of whiteness;” but the word was similar to Aztatlan, which would mean

“the place of herons,” some spot where these birds would love to congregate, from aztatl, the heron, and in

after ages, this latter, as the plainer and more concrete signification, came to prevail, and was adopted by the

myth−makers.

Polyonomy is another procedure often seen in these myths. A divinity has several or many titles; one or

another of these becomes prominent, and at last obscures in a particular myth or locality the original

personality of the hero of the tale. In America this is most obvious in Peru.

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 5

Akin to this is what Prof. Max Mueller has termed henotheism. In this mental process one god or one form of

a god is exalted beyond all others, and even addressed as the one, only, absolute and supreme deity. Such

expressions are not to be construed literally as evidences of a monotheism, but simply that at that particular

time the worshiper's mind was so filled with the power and majesty of the divinity to whom he appealed, that

he applied to him these superlatives, very much as he would to a great ruler. The next day he might apply

them to another deity, without any hypocrisy or sense of logical contradiction. Instances of this are common

in the Aztec prayers which have been preserved.

One difficulty encountered in Aryan mythology is extremely rare in America, and that is, the adoption of

foreign names. A proper name without a definite concrete significance in the tongue of the people who used it

is almost unexampled in the red race. A word without a meaning was something quite foreign to their mode of

thought. One of our most eminent students[1] has justly said: “Every Indian synthesis—names of persons and

places not excepted—must preserve the consciousness of its roots, and must not only have a meaning, but be

so framed as to convey that meaning with precision, to all who speak the language to which it belongs.”

Hence, the names of their divinities can nearly always be interpreted, though for the reasons above given the

most obvious and current interpretation is not in every case the correct one.

[Footnote 1: J. Hammond Trumbull, On the Composition of Indian Geographical Names, p. 3 (Hartford,

1870).]

As foreign names were not adopted, so the mythology of one tribe very rarely influenced that of another. As a

rule, all the religions were tribal or national, and their votaries had no desire to extend them. There was little

of the proselytizing spirit among the red race. Some exceptions can be pointed out to this statement, in the

Aztec and Peruvian monarchies. Some borrowing seems to have been done either by or from the Mayas; and

the hero−myth of the Iroquois has so many of the lineaments of that of the Algonkins that it is difficult to

believe that it was wholly independent of it. But, on the whole, the identities often found in American myths

are more justly attributable to a similarity of surroundings and impressions than to any other cause.

The diversity and intricacy of American mythology have been greatly fostered by the delight the more

developed nations took in rhetorical figures, in metaphor and simile, and in expressions of amplification and

hyperbole. Those who imagine that there was a poverty of resources in these languages, or that their concrete

form hemmed in the mind from the study of the abstract, speak without knowledge. One has but to look at the

inexhaustible synonymy of the Aztec, as it is set forth by Olmos or Sahagun, or at its power to render

correctly the refinements of scholastic theology, to see how wide of the fact is any such opinion. And what is

true of the Aztec, is not less so of the Qquichua and other tongues.

I will give an example, where the English language itself falls short of the nicety of the Qquichua in handling

a metaphysical tenet. Cay in Qquichua expresses the real being of things, the essentia ; as, runap caynin, the

being of the human race, humanity in the abstract; but to convey the idea of actual being, the existentia as

united to the essentia, we must add the prefix cascan, and thus have runap−cascan−caynin, which strictly

means “the essence of being in general, as existent in humanity.”[1] I doubt if the dialect of German

metaphysics itself, after all its elaboration, could produce in equal compass a term for this conception. In

Qquichua, moreover, there is nothing strained and nothing foreign in this example; it is perfectly pure, and in

thorough accord with the genius of the tongue.

[Footnote 1: “El ser existente de hombre, que es el modo de estar el primer ser que es la essentia que en Dios

y los Angeles y el hombre es modo personal.” Diego Gonzalez Holguin, Vocabvlario de la Lengva Qqichua, o

del Inca; sub voce, Cay. (Ciudad de los Reyes, 1608.)]

I take some pains to impress this fact, for it is an important one in estimating the religious ideas of the race.

We must not think we have grounds for skepticism if we occasionally come across some that astonish us by

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 6

their subtlety. Such are quite in keeping with the psychology and languages of the race we are studying.

Yet, throughout America, as in most other parts of the world, the teaching of religious tenets was twofold, the

one popular, the other for the initiated, an esoteric and an exoteric doctrine. A difference in dialect was

assiduously cultivated, a sort of “sacred language" being employed to conceal while it conveyed the mysteries

of faith. Some linguists think that these dialects are archaic forms of the language, the memory of which was

retained in ceremonial observances; others maintain that they were simply affectations of expression, and

form a sort of slang, based on the every day language, and current among the initiated. I am inclined to the

latter as the correct opinion, in many cases.

Whichever it was, such a sacred dialect is found in almost all tribes. There are fragments of it from the

cultivated races of Mexico, Yucatan and Peru; and at the other end of the scale we may instance the Guaymis,

of Darien, naked savages, but whose “chiefs of the law,” we are told, taught “the doctrines of their religion in

a peculiar idiom, invented for the purpose, and very different from the common language.”[1]

[Footnote 1: Franco, Noticia de los Indios Guaymies y de sus Costumbres, p. 20, in Pinart, Coleccion de

Linguistica y Etnografia Americana. Tom. iv.]

This becomes an added difficulty in the analysis of myths, as not only were the names of the divinities and of

localities expressed in terms in the highest degree metaphorical, but they were at times obscured by an

affected pronunciation, devised to conceal their exact derivation.

The native tribes of this Continent had many myths, and among them there was one which was so prominent,

and recurred with such strangely similar features in localities widely asunder, that it has for years attracted my

attention, and I have been led to present it as it occurs among several nations far apart, both geographically

and in point of culture. This myth is that of the national hero, their mythical civilizer and teacher of the tribe,

who, at the same time, was often identified with the supreme deity and the creator of the world. It is the

fundamental myth of a very large number of American tribes, and on its recognition and interpretation

depends the correct understanding of most of their mythology and religious life.

The outlines of this legend are to the effect that in some exceedingly remote time this divinity took an active

part in creating the world and in fitting it to be the abode of man, and may himself have formed or called forth

the race. At any rate, his interest in its advancement was such that he personally appeared among the ancestors

of the nation, and taught them the useful arts, gave them the maize or other food plants, initiated them into the

mysteries of their religious rites, framed the laws which governed their social relations, and having thus

started them on the road to self development, he left them, not suffering death, but disappearing in some way

from their view. Hence it was nigh universally expected that at some time he would return.

The circumstances attending the birth of these hero−gods have great similarity. As a rule, each is a twin or one

of four brothers born at one birth; very generally at the cost of their mother's life, who is a virgin, or at least

had never been impregnated by mortal man. The hero is apt to come into conflict with his brother, or one of

his brothers, and the long and desperate struggle resulting, which often involved the universe in repeated

destructions, constitutes one of the leading topics of the myth−makers. The duel is not generally—not at all, I

believe, when we can get at the genuine native form of the myth—between a morally good and an evil spirit,

though, undoubtedly, the one is more friendly and favorable to the welfare of man than the other.

The better of the two, the true hero−god, is in the end triumphant, though the national temperament

represented this variously. At any rate, his people are not deserted by him, and though absent, and perhaps for

a while driven away by his potent adversary, he is sure to come back some time or other.

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 7

The place of his birth is nearly always located in the East; from that quarter he first came when he appeared as

a man among men; toward that point he returned when he disappeared; and there he still lives, awaiting the

appointed time for his reappearance.

Whenever the personal appearance of this hero−god is described, it is, strangely enough, represented to be that

of one of the white race, a man of fair complexion, with long, flowing beard, with abundant hair, and clothed

in ample and loose robes. This extraordinary fact naturally suggests the gravest suspicion that these stories

were made up after the whites had reached the American shores, and nearly all historians have summarily

rejected their authenticity, on this account. But a most careful scrutiny of their sources positively refutes this

opinion. There is irrefragable evidence that these myths and this ideal of the hero−god, were intimately known

and widely current in America long before any one of its millions of inhabitants had ever seen a white man.

Nor is there any difficulty in explaining this, when we divest these figures of the fanciful garbs in which they

have been clothed by the religious imagination, and recognize what are the phenomena on which they are

based, and the physical processes whose histories they embody. To show this I will offer, in the most concise

terms, my interpretation of their main details.

The most important of all things to life is Light. This the primitive savage felt, and, personifying it, he made

Light his chief god. The beginning of the day served, by analogy, for the beginning of the world. Light comes

before the sun, brings it forth, creates it, as it were. Hence the Light−God is not the Sun−God, but his

Antecedent and Creator.

The light appears in the East, and thus defines that cardinal point, and by it the others are located. These

points, as indispensable guides to the wandering hordes, became, from earliest times, personified as important

deities, and were identified with the winds that blew from them, as wind and rain gods. This explains the four

brothers, who were nothing else than the four cardinal points, and their mother, who dies in producing them, is

the eastern light, which is soon lost in the growing day. The East, as their leader, was also the supposed ruler

of the winds, and thus god of the air and rain. As more immediately connected with the advent and departure

of light, the East and West are twins, the one of which sends forth the glorious day−orb, which the other lies

in wait to conquer. Yet the light−god is not slain. The sun shall rise again in undiminished glory, and he lives,

though absent.

By sight and light we see and learn. Nothing, therefore, is more natural than to attribute to the light−god the

early progress in the arts of domestic and social life. Thus light came to be personified as the embodiment of

culture and knowledge, of wisdom, and of the peace and prosperity which are necessary for the growth of

learning.

The fair complexion of these heroes is nothing but a reference to the white light of the dawn. Their ample hair

and beard are the rays of the sun that flow from his radiant visage. Their loose and large robes typify the

enfolding of the firmament by the light and the winds.

This interpretation is nowise strained, but is simply that which, in Aryan mythology, is now universally

accepted for similar mythological creations. Thus, in the Greek Phoebus and Perseus, in the Teutonic Lif, and

in the Norse Baldur, we have also beneficent hero−gods, distinguished by their fair complexion and ample

golden locks. “Amongst the dark as well as amongst the fair races, amongst those who are marked by black

hair and dark eyes, they exhibit the same unfailing type of blue−eyed heroes whose golden locks flow over

their shoulders, and whose faces gleam as with the light of the new risen sun.”[1]

[Footnote 1: Sir George W. Cox, An Introduction to the Science of Comparative Mythology and Folk−Lore, p.

17.]

American Hero−Myths

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 8

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